Evolutionary linguistics - Evolutionary linguistics Evolutionary linguistics is the scientific study of the history of the origins of language and its development - difficult, because language leaves only vicarious traces in the fossil record. As an early attempt to develop Evolutionary linguistics based on natural sciences - particularly with regard to biology - may be recognized the studies and Stammbaumtheorie of August Schleicher (1821-68). He first introduced in comparative linguistics a graphic representation of an evolutionary tree in articles published in 1853. Nevertheless, a worthwhile subject of study - too long ignored. (see also Evolutionary Psychology) However, there are various approaches to the study of evolutionary linguistics that do not depend on fossil record. One of them is the route taken by CSL/Paris, headed by prof. Luc Steels in.
Artificial life - carbon-based chemical solution. Its researchers try instead to mimic life processes to understand the appearance of single phenomena. The usual way is through an agent based model, which usually gives a minimal possible solution. That is: "we don't know what in nature generates this phenomenon, but could be something as simple as..." The field is characterized by the extensive use of computer programs and computer simulations which include evolutionary algorithms (EA), genetic algorithms (GA), genetic programming (GP), artificial chemistries (AC), agent based models, and cellular automata (CA). Of interest has also been the application of co-evolution to Lindenmayer systems. Artificial life as a field has had a controversial history, some have characterized it as "practical theology" or a "fact-free science". However, for many, artificial life is a meeting point for people.
Cladistics - (or phylogenetic systematics) is a branch of biology that determines the evolutionary relationships between living things based on derived similarity. Cladistics differs from phenetics, which groups organisms based on overall similarity, and from more traditional approaches based on "key characters". Willi Hennig is widely regarded as the founder of cladistics. Based on a wide variety of information, which includes genetic analysis, biochemical analysis, and analysis of morphology, relationship trees called "cladograms" are drawn up to show different possibilities. A cladogram showing the relationship between various insect groups using horizontal parallel lines joined by vertical lines. In some cladograms of this type, the length of the horizontal lines indicates the amount of time that has passed since the last common ancestor between two groups or species. A cladogram showing the relationship between.
Cognitive science - stresses that it is highly inter-disciplinary; it is often said to consist of, take part in, and/or collaborate with psychology (especially cognitive psychology), linguistics, neuroscience, artificial intelligence (neural network research in particular), and philosophy (especially philosophy of mind and philosophy of mathematics, but also with applications in philosophy of science). Many but not all who consider themselves cognitive scientists have a functionalist view of mind/intelligence, which means that, at least in theory, they study mind and intelligence from the perspective that these attributes could perhaps (at least someday) be properly attributed not only to human beings but also to, say, other animal species, alien life forms or particularly advanced computer sytems. This perspective is one of the reasons the term "cognitive science" is not exactly coextensive with neuroscience, psychology, or some.
Tree structure - A tree structure showing the possible hierarchical organization of an encyclopedia. This specific example happens to be a complete binary tree, which means all nodes have exactly zero or two child nodes. The lines connecting elements are called ''branches," the elements themselves are called "nodes." Nodes without children are called "end-nodes" or "leaves." The names of relationships between nodes are modeled after family relations. In computer sciences, traditionally only names for male family members have been used. In linguistics, the names of female family members are used. It is said that this was an express counter movement to the traditional naming convention, started by the female students of linguist Noam Chomsky. However, nowadays, in computer science at least, the gender-neutral names "parent" and "child" have largely displaced the older "father" and.
Social sciences - in that the social sciences emphasise the scientific method or other rigorous standards of evidence in the study of humanity. The main social sciences include: Economics, allocation of wealth Political Science Psychology, human mind Linguistics Sociology Anthropology and History are sometimes classified as social sciences or as humanities. Furthermore, anthropology is sometimes classified as a natural science. Non-traditional approaches to social sciences include: Memetics Sociobiology Table of contents showTocToggle("show","hide") 1 History of the Concept 2 The Rise of Social Science 3 The "Age of Science" 4 Challenges to The Scientific Age 5 Present State of the Theory of Social Sciences History of the Concept In ancient philosophy, there was no difference between the liberal arts of mathematics and the study of history, poetry or politics - only with the development of.
Resource Description Framework - expression (in RDF terms, called a triple). The subject is essentially the resource, the "thing", being described. The predicate is what trait or aspect about that resource that is being described. And the object is what the value of that trait is. The terminology is taken from logic and linguistics where subject-predicate or subject-predicate-object structures have very similar but definitely distinct meanings. For RDF, there is again a similar but distinct meaning that might be best described by example. Table of contents showTocToggle("show","hide") 1 By examples 1.1 Example 1: the postal abbreviation for New York 1.2 Example 2: a Wikipedia page about Tony Benn 2 More on triples 3 RDF implementations 4 See Also 5 External Links By examples Example 1: the postal abbreviation for New York In the statement 'New.
Philosophy of mathematics - which questions this brain would find worthy of investigation. However, the human mind has no special claim on "reality" or approaches to it built out of math; If such constructs as Euler's Identity are "true" then they are true as a map of the human mind and cognition, not as a map of anything it "sees". The effectiveness of mathematics is thus easily explained: mathematics was constructed by the brain in order to be effective in this universe. The most accessible, famous, and infamous treatment of this perspective is Where Mathematics Comes From, by George Lakoff and Rafael E. Núñez. (Since this book was first published in the year 2000, it may still be one of the only treatments of this perspective.) For more on the science that inspired this perspective,.
Psychology - a branch of study developed within Buddhism that investigated the functions of the human mind, and the relationship of these to human behavior, mental illness, and methods for correcting delusory thinking that leads to suffering. This school was known as Yogacara (also known by the names Mind-only, Consciousness-only, etc). In recent years and particularly in the United States, a major split has been developing between academic research psychologists in universities and some branches of clinical psychology. Many academic psychologists believe that these clinicians use therapies based on discredited theories and unsupported by empirical evidence of their effectiveness. From the other side, these clinicians believe that the academics are ignoring their experience in dealing with actual patients. The disagreement has resulted in the formation of the American Psychological Society by the research.
Nostratic language - and meanings. Jones essentially argued that there were too many of these sets for their existence to be mere coincidence. He proposed that the languages in question must have stemmed from one language at some time in the past, and that they diverged from one another due to geographical separation and the passage of time. The idea of a "root language" thus took hold. The second major concept to keep in mind is that, starting with Jacob Grimm (of fairy tale fame), it was argued that languages would not evolve in a haphazard manner; that they evolved according to certain rules. Using these rules, one could theoretically run the evolutionary process backwards and reconstruct the root language. This has been done, and a hypothetical language named Proto-Indo-European has been produced. The.
Meaning - difficult and complex concepts we have, studied in semantics (a branch of linguistics) and in the philosophy of language (the theory of meaning in particular). See especially: philosophy of language and the meaning of meaning. Meaning in a wider sense is also part of the general theory of information. This theory tries to formulate rules, about the way meaningful information is emerging how meaningful information is conserved how the meaning of something can be measured how information with meaning is lost again. The meaning of an information or a thing is its value or its sense. Often the meaning of an information or a thing is only realized, when it is lost or it tends to get lost. Table of contents showTocToggle("show","hide") 1 How does meaning come up ? 2 How.
Language - community use to mediate between form and meaning a set of grammatically correct utterances (i.e. words, sentences, etc.) a set of utterances that could be understood by a linguistic community thought Ferdinand de Saussure, the founder of modern linguistics, made a distinction between langue and parole. In any case, human language is the most central meaning of language. The study of language is called linguistics. Making a principled distinction between one human language and another is often not possible. One major issue is the dialect continuum phenomena, where the boundaries between named language groups are necessarily arbitrary. For instance, there are dialects of German very similar to Dutch which are not mutually intelligible with other dialects of (what we call) German. Note that there are parallels to biology, where it is.
List of ologies - the scientific study of baths, bathing and of their application to disease Bioclimatology, the study of the effects of climate on living organisms Bioecology, the study of the relationship of organisms to each other and to their environment Biology, the study of life Biometeorology, the study of the effects of atmospheric conditions on living organisms Bryology, the study of bryophytes Byzantology, the study of Byzantium C Campanology, the study and the art of bell ringing Cardiology, the study of the heart Carpology, the study of the structure of seeds and fruit Cerealogy, the study of crop circles Cetology, the study of marine mammals Chorology, the study of the relationship of biological or other phenomena to their locations Chronology the study of things in order of time or the study of time.
List of linguistic topics - This page aims to list articles on Wikipedia that are related to linguistics. This is so that those interested in the subject can monitor changes to the pages by clicking on Recent changes in the sidebar and on the bottom of the page.. The list is not necessary complete or up to date - if you see an article that should be here but isn't (or one that shouldn't be here but is), please do update the page accordingly. See also Linguistics basic topics for a pared-down list. List of linguists List of cognitive science topics. A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A abbreviation - abessive case - ablaut - absolutive.
List of cognitive science topics - bottom of the page. The list is not necessary complete or up to date - if you see an article that should be here but isn't (or one that shouldn't be here but is), please do update the page accordingly. See also Linguistics basic topics. A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A Alan Turing - anthropological linguistics - artificial intelligence - artificial life - attention B C Cognitive therapy - cognitive behaviour therapy - cognitive psychology - cognitive science - cognitive science of mathematics - collective intelligence - common phrases in different languages - comparative linguistics - comparative method - computational linguistics - conceptual metaphor - connotation - constructed language -.
List of psychological topics - B B. F. Skinner -- behavioral imprinting -- behavioral psychology -- behaviorism -- bipolar disorder -- brain -- brainwashing C captology -- Carl Jung -- Carl Rogers -- Catherine Snow -- child directed speech -- clinical psychology -- cognition -- cognitive behavior therapy -- cognitive psychology -- cognitive science -- collective unconscious -- color psychology -- comparative psychology -- computer science -- conditioned reflex -- conditioning -- connectionism -- consciousness -- counselling psychology -- critical psychology -- critical theory D Daniel Dennett -- decision making -- developmental psychology -- dreaming -- Donald Olding Hebb E economics -- economic psychology -- educational psychology -- Ego -- Electra complex -- eliminative materialism -- Elizabeth Kübler-Ross -- Emil Kraepelin -- emotion -- Eric Lenneberg -- Erich Fromm -- Erik H. Erikson -- Ernest Jones.
Lie - even the truth if the intention is to deceive or to cause an action not in the listener's interests. Table of contents showTocToggle("show","hide") 1 Morality of lying 1.1 Etiquette of lying 1.2 Paradox of lying 2 Psychology of lying 2.3 Sociology and linguistics of lying 2.4 Lies and trust Morality of lying Lying is against the moral standards of many people and is specifically prohibited as a sin in many religions. Ethical traditions and philosopers are divided over whether a lie is ever allowable but are generally opposed - Aristotle said no, Plato said yes, Saint Augustine said no, Kant said no. Lying in a way that escalates rather than de-escalates a conflict is usually considered the worst sin. A liar is a person who is known to have a tendency.
List of protosciences - and should not be included. Pure Pseudoscience should not be included, also. Table of contents showTocToggle("show","hide") 1 The List 1.1 A to H 1.2 I to P 1.3 Q to Z 1.4 Numbers 2 External Links The List A to H Acupuncture Applied kinesiology Aromatherapy Artificial intelligence Artificial life Astrobiology Autonomous agents Ball Lightning Biological Electronic Aesthetic Mechanics Biophysics Biorhythms Brane cosmology Chiropractic Chronobiology Cold nuclear fusion (CNF) Computability theory Computational linguistics Cryonics Cryptozoology Cybernetics Dowsing Dynamic theory of gravity Evolutionary psychology Exobiology Grand Unified Theory Graphology Homeopathy I to P Information theory Intelligent Design theory Kirlian photography Ley lines Lucid dreaming Mathematical Biology Memetics Neural networks Parapsychology Perpetual motion machines Plasma cosmology Q to Z Quantum computers Quantum gravity Quaternion physics Reciprocal System of Theory Remote viewing Repressed memory therapy.
Hakka (linguistics) - Hakka (linguistics) Hakka (客家話 Hak-kâ-fa in Hakka) is a dialect of the Chinese language, mainly spoken by Hakka people. Hakka's Sounds: Labial Labdent Alv. Palatal Velar Glottal Stop1 p p^h t t^h k k^h Fricative2 f v s S h Affricate1 ts ts^h tS tS^h Semivowel w j Liquid l Nasal m n N a e i o u ai au eu iu oi.
History of linguistics - History of linguistics In Europe through the 19th century, linguistics centered on the comparative history of the Indo-European languages, with a concern for finding their common roots and tracing their development. Working from a biblical perspective some scholars believed that all human languages were descended from the language of Adam, a language called the Adamic language. Many of these scholars believed that the Hebrew language was, in fact, the same as the Adamic language. However, the existence of any such single ancestoral language on timescales indicated by a literal reading of the Bible is not consistent with modern linguistics. About 1880, scholars in the United States began to record the hundreds of native languages once found in North America. The concern with describing languages has spread throughout.
