Human antiquity in Mesoamerica - Human antiquity in Mesoamerica Scientific opinion regarding human antiquity in Mesoamerica has reflected larger trends in conceptualizing human antiquity in the western hemisphere in general. Within that foundational topic, the establishment of sites demonstrating human antiquity in Mesoamerica has centered on the association of remains and artifacts with geologic strata (context) and on the reliability of the dating of the remains and strata (methodologies). At the beginning of the twentieth century, humans were believed to be very recent post-glacial immigrants to the western hemisphere. Although there was believed to have been anywhere from 20,000 to 60,000 years of post-glacial time in which such immigration could have occurred over the Bering land bridge, the antiquity of human presence in the western hemisphere was popularly fixed at about.
Trephinning in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica - Trephinning in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica Trephinning or Trepanation, which is also known as trephining, and trepanning, refers to the surgical practice of removing a small of bone from the skull, generally to relieve pressure on the brain. The multiple techniques of trephinning in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica were identical to the art as practiced in the eastern hemisphere. Trephinning involves drilling a hole into a human skull using any of several techniques. If the operation is successful, the bone begins to grow back, beginning at the rims of the hole and growing toward the center of the hole. The new bone growth is shallower than the bone at the rim, enabling scientists to determine whether a person lived following the operation. Evidence of trephinning has been found for populations around the world.
Mesoamerica - Mesoamerica Mesoamerica is the region extending from central Mexico through Central America which produced a set of culturally related civilizations before the discovery of the New World by Columbus. Mesoamerican is a general adjective to refer to that group of Pre-Columbian cultures. Some common shared Mesoamerican traits include intensive agriculture based heavily on maize corn; worship of a set of deities including a rain god, a sun god, a feathered-serpent god (Quetzalcoatl); a Vigesimal numbering system; the use of a 260 day ritual calendar in addition to the solar year calendar; the construction of temples elevated atop stepped pyramids; a ritual ball-game; and various other artistic and cultural conventions. Mesoamerican civilizations included the Olmec, Maya, Mixtec, Zapotec, Huastec, Tarascan, Teotihuacan, Totonac, Toltec, and the Aztec. In.
History of astronomy - is probably the eldest natural science, dating back to antiquity. Early astronomy involved observing (and predicting...see scientific method) the motions of visible celestial objects (mostly stars and planets). An example of this early astronomy might involve a study of the relationships between the "apparent height" of the noon Sun, with respect to the changing patterns of nighttime stars. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) crafted his own telescope and discovered that our Moon had craters, that Jupiter had moons, that the Sun had spots, and that Venus had phases like our Moon. Galileo claimed these observations only made sense if the planets revolved around the Sun and not the Earth, as was commonly believed then. Ancient astronomers were able to differentiate between stars and planets; as stars remain relatively fixed over the centuries, while.
Human sacrifice - Human sacrifice Human sacrifice was practiced by many ancient cultures. People would be ritually killed in a manner that was supposed to please or appease some god or spirit. While not widely known, on rare occaions human sacrifices still occur today. Some occasions for human sacrifice include: Sacrifice to accompany the dedication of a new temple or bridge. Sacrifice upon the death of a king, high priest or great leader; the sacrified were supposed to serve or accompany the deceased leader in the next life. Sacrifice in times of natural disaster. Droughts, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions etc were seen as a sign of anger or displeasure by deities, and sacrifices were supposed to lessen the divine ire. Such sacrifices occured in the Bronze age religions in Europe,.
Ancient Mesoamerican agriculture - Ancient Mesoamerican Agriculture The origins of agriculture in Mesoamerica date to the Archaic period of Mesoamerican chronology, 8000-2000 BC. During this period many of the hunter gatherer micro-bands in the region began to cultivate wild plants. The cultivation of these plants probably started out as creating known areas of fall back, or starvation foods, near seasonal camps that the band could rely on when hunting was bad, or when there was a drought. The plants could have been brought purposely or by accident. The former could have been done by bringing a wild plant food closer to a camp site or to a frequented area so it was easier to get to or collect. The latter could have happened as certain plant seeds were eaten and not fully digested, causing these.
The jaguar in Mesoamerican culture - jaguar played an important role in the culture and religion of Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica. Quick, agile, and powerful enough to take down the largest prey of the jungle, the jaguar is the largest of the big cats in the Americas, and one of the most efficient and ferocious predators. Endowed with a magnificent spotted coat and well adapted for the jungle, hunting either in the trees or water, making it one of the only felines tolerant of water, the jaguar was and still is revered among the indigenous Americans who reside closely with the jaguar. For the Olmec and the Maya, this regal feline became a symbol of authority and one’s prowess in hunting and battle, as well as an integral part of mythology and a powerful spirit companion for shamans. The.
Obsidian use in Mesoamerica - Obsidian use in Mesoamerica Obsidian was an important part of the material culture of Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica. Its uses, value, production, trade, sources, and analysis are all important aspects of the study of cultures in this region. Practical and Ritual Obsidian Use Almost no site in Mesoamerica is without obsidian, called "Itztli" in the Nahuatl language. It was an item that had both frequent, common uses and ritual use. Obsidian was available to all households and was found in hunting, agriculture, and many other everyday situations. Examples of possible obsidian tools are knives, lance and dart points, prismatic blades sometimes used for woodworking or shaving, bone working tools, bifaces, retouched flakes, and spearheads for ritual warfare. Blades have been found in situ with rabbit, rodent, and mollusk remains, indicating.
Mesoamerican ballgame - sport with ritual associations played for over 3000 years by the peoples of Mesoamerica in Pre-Columbian times, and in a few places continues to be played by descendants of the area Amerind inhabitants. The Great Ball Court at Chichén Itzá The Ball Court. A Ball Court Goal. As might be expected with a game played over so long a timespan in several different nations, details of the games varied over time and place, so the Mesoamerican ballgame might be more accurately seen as a family of related games. Some versions were played between two individuals, others between 2 teams of players. The games shared the characteristics of being played with a hard rubber ball in a court shaped like a capital letter "I". The game was called tlachtli by the Aztec.
History of physics - of contents showTocToggle("show","hide") 1 History of Physics 2 Antiquity 3 The Middle Ages & Islamic contibutions to the Sciences 4 16th century 5 17th century 6 18th century 7 19th century 8 20th century 9 Developments since 1990 10 Developments since 2000 History of Physics This article has changed substantially from its original form as the "Ridiculously Brief History of Physics" on the main Physics page. However, further work is needed to fill in some obvious gaps, and to include more detail about the development of physics (and, concurrently, astromomy and mathematics) in non-European cultures. It is intended that this article should grow to be a brief but comprehensive history of physics. The history on the Physics page should remain as a summary only. This article is a work in progress:.
Kaminaljuyu - City, requested archaeologists Alfred Kidder, Jesse Jennings and Edwin Shook to investigate. Lic. Villacorta gave the site its name Kaminaljuyu from a Quiché word meaning “hills of the dead.” Kaminaljuyu surrounded by civilization The Middle Cultures, sometimes called Miraflores, were the underlying base that made a foundation for later cultures of the Classic Maya to flourish. Cultures of this phase had a stable agricultural community. The remains from this time period are very abundant at Kaminaljuyu. One period of the Middle Culture is the Middle Formative period, which lasted from approximately 800 B.C.E. to 300 B.C.E. Excavations at Kaminaljuyu indicate the communities of the Middle Formative were sedentary and large enough to produce heavy refuse deposits. They grew cotton and practiced loom-weaving and were expert potters. Religious practices that would later.
Jewish Messiah - to this alternative understanding of the messiah, early Christians brought from Judaism its scriptures, fundamental doctrines such as monotheism, and other beliefs and practices. Jewish theology Judaism teaches that it is heretical for any man to claim to be a part of god; Jews view Jesus as just one in a long list of Jewish claimants to be the messiah. The article on the concept of the messiah contains a list of many people who claimed to be the messiah, son of God, or both. The view of Maimonides The predominant Jewish understanding of moschiach ("the messiah") is based on the writings of Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon, better known as Maimonides, or the Rambam. His views on the messiah are discussed in his Mishneh Torah, his 14 volume compendium of Jewish.
John Milton - by a rumor of the outbreak of the armed struggle for liberty at home. The next twenty years of his life were devoted almost entirely to prose work in the service of the Puritan cause. In 1641 and 1642 appeared his tractates Of Reformation touching Church Discipline in England, Of Prelatical Episcopacy, the two defenses of Smectymnuus, and The Reason of Church Government Urged against Prelaty. With frequent passages of real eloquence lighting up the rough controversial style of the period, and with a wide knowledge of ecclesiastical antiquity, he struck weighty blows at the intolerant High-church party which seemed to dominate the Church of England. The ill-success of his first marriage, with the daughter of a Royalist squire in Oxfordshire, who left him in a month, led him to write.
Vincent of Lerins - express himself decidedly, but evidently inclines to that view, says "L'opinion qui le condamne et l'abandonne aux Semipelagiens passe aujourd'hui pour la plus commune parmi les savans." It has been matter of question whether Vincentius is to be credited with the authorship of the "Objectiones Vincentianae," a collection of Sixteen Inferences alleged to be deducible from St. Augustine's writings, which has come down to us in Prosper's Reply. Its date coincides so nearly with that of the Commonitory as to preclude all doubt as to the identity of authorship on that score, and it must be confessed that its animus and that of the 70th and 86th sections of the Commonitory are too much in keeping to make it difficult to believe that both are from the same pen. The Commonitory.
John Barleycorn - an early seventeenth century version, the mysterious kings of Burns's version were in fact ordinary men laid low by drink, and sought their revenge on John Barleycorn for that offence: Sir John Barley-Corn fought in a Bowl, who won the Victory, Which made them all to chafe and swear, that Barley-Corn must dye. Another early version features John Barleycorn's revenge on the miller: Mault gave the Miller such a blow, That from [h]is horse he fell full low, He taught him his master Mault for to know you neuer saw the like sir. Many versions of the song have been recorded; most notably by Traffic, whose album John Barleycorn Must Die is named after the song. The song has also been recorded by Bert Jansch, Steeleye Span, and many other performers..
Heinrich Ewald - Bismarck, whom he had compared to Frederick the Great in "his unrighteous war with Austria and his ruination of religion and morality," to Napoleon III in his way of "picking out the best time possible for robbery and plunder." For this offence he was sentenced to undergo three weeks' imprisonment. He died in his 72nd year, of heart disease. In his public life Ewald displayed characteristics such as simplicity and sincerity, moral earnestness, independence, absolute fearlessness. As a teacher he had a remarkable power of kindling enthusiasm; and he taught many distinguished pupils, including Ferdinand Hitzig, Eberhard Schrader, Theodor Noldeke, Diestel and Christian Friedrich August Dillmann. His disciples were not all of one school, but many eminent scholars who apparently have been untouched by his influence have in fact developed some.
History of anatomy in ancient times - be justly said that more learning than judgment has been displayed. Some writers claim for it the highest antiquity, and pretend to find its first rudiments alternately in the animal sacrifices of the shepherd kings, the Jews and other ancient nations, and in the art of embalming as practiced by the Egyptian priests. The oldest anatomical treatise extant is an Egyptian papyrus probably written sixteen centuries before our era. It shows that the heart, vessels, liver, spleen, kidneys, ureters and bladder were recognized, and that the blood-vessels were known to come from the heart. Other vessels are described, some carrying air, some mucus, while two to the right ear are said to carry the breath of life, and two to the left ear the breath of death. Even the descriptions of.
Hydatius - some important bishops of the day, including Thoribius of Astorga and Antoninus of Mérida. Together with Thoribius, he petitioned Pope Leo I (reigned 440-461) for assistance and advice in dealing with heresy. Though Hydatius consistently characterizes Spanish heretics as Manichees, it is generally believed that he meant Priscillianists, followers of the Spanish ascetic and bishop Priscillian, who had been condemned as a heretic by several church councils and executed as a magician by the emperor Magnus Maximus (reigned 383-388) around 385. We know very little else about Hydatius' life, though we know he was kidnapped and imprisoned for a time in 460 by local enemies, which suggests he played an important role in the internal politics of Roman Gallaecia. Hydatius' main claim to historical importance is the chronicle he wrote towards.
General features of Aegean civilization - last, these being rocks or pillars, trees, weapons (e.g. bipennis, or double war-axe, shield), etc. When the iconic stage was reached, about 2000 BC, we find the Divine Spirit represented as a goddess with a subordinate young god, as in many other E. Mediterranean lands. The god was probably son and mate of the goddess, and the divine pair represented the genius of Reproductive Fertility in its relations with humanity. The goddess sometimes appears with doves, as uranic, at others with snakes, as chthonic. In the ritual fetishes, often of miniature form, played a great part: all sorts of plants and animals were sacred: sacrifice (not burnt, and human very doubtful), dedication of all sorts of offerings and simulacra, invocation, etc., were practised. The dead, who returned to the Great Mother,.
Glycolysis - the organism and the conditions, most notably the presence or absence of oxygen or other external electron acceptors. In fermentation, the pyruvate and NADH are anerobically metabolized to yield any of a variety of products. For example, the bacteria involved in making yogurt simply reduce the pyruvate to lactic acid, whereas yeast produce ethanol and carbon dioxide. In aerobic organisms, the pyruvate typically enters the citric acid cycle, and the NADH is ultimately oxidized by oxygen. Although human metabolism is primarily aerobic, under anerobic conditions, for example in over-worked muscles that are starved for oxygen, pyruvate is converted to lactate, as in many microorganisms. Glycolysis is the only metabolic pathway common to nearly all living organisms, suggesting great antiquity; it may have originated with the first prokaryotes, 3.5 billion years ago.
