Immanuel Kant - Immanuel Kant zh-cn:伊曼努尔·康德 zh-tw:伊曼努爾·康德 Immanuel Kant (April 22, 1724 - February 12, 1804) was a German philosopher, generally regarded as the last major philosopher of the early modern period and, on anyone's account, one of history's most influential thinkers. Kant is most famous for his view—called transcendental idealism—that we bring innate forms and concepts to the raw experience of the world, which otherwise would be completely unknowable. Kant's philosophy of nature and human nature is one of the most important historical sources of the modern conceptual relativism that dominated the intellectual life of the 20th century—though it is likely that Kant would reject relativism in most of its more radical modern forms. Kant is also well-known and very influential for his moral philosophy. Kant also proposed.
Kant and the Platypus: Essays on Language and Cognition - Kant and the Platypus: Essays on Language and Cognition Kant and the Platypus : Essays on Language and Cognition is a book by Umberto Eco which was published in Italian in 1997. An English edition, translated by Alastair McEwen, appeared in 1999. The book develops some aspects of Eco's A Theory of Semiotics which came out in 1976. In the first chapter Eco develops Nietzsche's argument that the truth is a poetically elaborated "mobile army of metaphors, metonymies and anthropomorphisms" that subsequently gel into knowledge, "illusions whose illusory nature has been forgotten", as the metaphors are reduced to schemata and concepts. In chapter two, working with ideas derived from Charles Peirce and Immanuel Kant, Eco compares linguistic and perceptual meaning when confronted with the unencountered. Chapter.
Immanuel - Immanuel Immanuel or Emmanuel (Hebrew עמנו אל), meaning "God is with us" in Hebrew, is a title used in the Book of Isaiah in the Old Testament. In the King James Bible, the relevant verse runs like this: 7:14 Therefore the Lord himself shall give you a sign; Behold, a virgin shall conceive, and bear a son, and shall call his name Immanuel. There is considerable dispute about the precise meaning and application of this verse, but Christians believe it to be a prophecy of the birth of Jesus, who is therefore sometimes called Immanuel or Emmanuel. It is used as first name among Christians. Examples are Immanuel Kant, Vittorio Emmanuele I of Italy, the bullfighter Manolete and the Emmanuelle erotic films. See also Gospel of.
Karl Daub - the leaders of a school which sought to reconcile theology and philosophy, and to bring about a speculative reconstruction of orthodox dogma. In the course of his intellectual development, he came successively under the influence of Immanuel Kant, Friedrich von Schelling and Georg Hegel, and on account of the different phases through which he passed he was called the Talleyrand of German thought. There was one great defect in his speculative theology: he ignored historical criticism. His purpose was, as Otto Pfleiderer says, "to connect the metaphysical ideas, which had been arrived at by means of philosophical dialectic, directly with the persons and events of the Gospel narratives, thus raising these above the region of ordinary experience into that of the supernatural, and regarding the most absurd assertions as philosophically justified..
J. G. Hamann - Hamann was a German pietist protestant, thinker, and friend of the philosopher Immanuel Kant. His distrust of reason led him conclude that a childlike faith in God was the only solution to the vexing problems of philosophy. Also known by the epithet Magus of the North, he was one of the precipitating forces for the counter-enlightenment. He defended the letter h in a pamphlet New Apology of the Letter H..
Jakob Friedrich Fries - Schelling (1803), and in the more systematic treatises System der Philosophie als evidente Wissenschaft (1804), Wissen, Glaube und Ahnung (1805). His most important treatise, the Neue oder anthropologische Kritik der Vernunft (2nd ed., 1828-1831), was an attempt to give a new foundation of psychological analysis to the critical theory of Immanuel Kant. In 1811 he published his System der Logik (ed. 1819 and 1837), and in 1814 Julius und Evagoras, a philosophical romance. In 1816 he was invited to Jena to fill the chair of theoretical philosophy (including mathematics and physics, and philosophy proper), and entered upon a crusade against the prevailing Romanticism. In politics he was a strong Liberal and Unionist, and did much to inspire the organization of the Burschenschaft. In 1816 he had published his views in a.
Jewish philosophy - advanced; he placed reason above tradition. Hasdai Crescas (1340-1410) is best known for his Or Adonai (Light of the Lord) is one of the most original and independent works of scholasticism in general. Apart from its hardihood in openly and unreservedly attacking Maimonides' claims of infallibility for Aristotle in all matters pertaining to the sublunary world, it has the merit of projecting the problem of causes into the very foreground of philosophical thought. The mental heights of Crescas were by no means maintained by his pupil Joseph Albo, the last Jewish scholastic in the Spanish peninsula. In his '"Iḳḳarim" (Fundamental Doctrines) he sinks to the level of an ordinary philosophizing rhetorician and moralist. It is difficult perhaps to penetrate the depth of thought and deft language of Crescas; but it is.
Johann Augustus Eberhard - his reasoning offended the strictly orthodox divines, and probably obstructed his preferment in the church. In 1774 he was appointed to the living of Charlottenburg. A second volume of his Apologie appeared in 1778. In this he endeavoured to obviate some objections which were taken to the former part, and continued his inquiries into the doctrines of the Christian religion, religious toleration and the proper rules for interpreting the Scriptures. In 1778 he accepted the professorship of philosophy at Halle. As an academic teacher, however, he was unsuccessful. His powers as an original thinker were not equal to his learning and his literary gifts, as was shown in his opposition to the philosophy of Immanuel Kant. In 1786 he was admitted a member of the Berlin Academy of Sciences; in 1805.
Johann Gottfried Herder - collection of Germanic folk tales. Born in Mohrungen (Polish: Morag), Kingdom of Prussia, Herder is also known as a philosopher, theologian and poet; he grew up learning from his father's Bible and songbook. He studied at the University of Königsberg and after that with Immanuel Kant. In 1764 Herder went to Riga as a preacher and teacher. He received some notice after the publication of his Origins of Language. While travelling, he met Goethe. This event can be seen as the beginning of the 'Sturm und Drang' movement. In the meanwhile he took a position with Count Wilhelm von Schaumburg-Lippe. By 1776 he had moved to Weimar and at Goethe's urging took a position as General Superintendent. Herder emphasised that his conception of the nation encouraged democracy and the free self-expression.
Idealism - making the world the way it is--that thought and the world are made for one another, or that they make one another. (For example, Immanuel Kant held that the mind forces the world we perceive to take the shape of space-and-time; Georg Hegel thought that history must be rational in something significantly like the way science is.) Finally, "idealism" can denote the belief that abstract or mental entities have some sort of reality "independent" of the world. (Some philosophers think of numbers this way; Plato thought that all properties and objects we could think of must have some such independent existence. Confusingly, this kind of idealism was once termed "Realism".) Not all religion and belief in the supernatural is, strictly speaking, anti-materialist in nature. Many types of religious belief are specificially.
Victor Cousin - philosophy." In 1815-1816 Cousin attained the position of suppliant (assistant) to Royer-Collard in the history of modern philosophy chair of the faculty of letters. Another thinker who influenced him at this early period was Maine de Biran, whom Cousin regarded as the unequalled psychological observer of his time in France. These men strongly influenced Cousin's philosophical thought. To Laromiguière he attributes the lesson of decomposing thought, even though the reduction of it to sensation was inadequate. Royer-Collard taught him that even sensation is subject to certain internal laws and principles which it does not itself explain, which are superior to analysis and the natural patrimony of the mind. De Biran made a special study of the phenomena of the will. He taught him to distinguish in all cognitions, and especially in.
International relations theory - as the state – the accompanying assumption is that the state is the protectorate of its people. Another reaction to the events of September 11 was the rekindling of the National Missile Defence project which seemed rather counterintuitive at the time. However, within a Realist framework, this seems to represent a reasonable response: the state is threatened – every step must be taken to protect the state. If we acknowledge these associations between Realist theory and US policy then we can effectively claim that theory and policy are intimately connected. For a Poststructural Analysis see James Der Derian's writings: On Diplomacy; Antidiplomacy: Spies, Speed, Terror and War; Virtuous War The field is dominated by two large currents: liberalism (in the British sense) and realism. Other theories, like dependency, marxism, and else,.
Induction - that all swans are white is obviously wrong, but may have been thought correct in Europe until the settlement of Australia. Inductive arguments are never binding but they may be cogent. Inductive reasoning expresses the truth-value of its inferences in terms of probability rather than necessity. The problem of induction, the search for a justification for inductive reasoning, was formally addressed first by David Hume. Hume criticised induction based on repeated experiences. Philosophers since at least David Hume recognized a significant distinction between two kinds of statements, later called by Immanuel Kant "analytic" and "synthetic." Analytic truths, such as "All bachelors are unmarried men," or "Human beings are two-legged animals" are supposed to be true by virtue of the meanings of the words alone. Synthetic statements, such as "All ravens are.
Hans Christian Orsted - in Copenhagen) was a Danish physicist and chemist, influenced by the thinking of Immanuel Kant. In 1820 he discovered the relationship between electricity and magnetism in a very simple experiment. He demonstrated that a wire carrying a current was able to deflect a magnetised compass needle. Ørsted did not suggest any satisfactory explanation of the phenomenon, nor did he try to represent the phenomenon in a mathematical framework. In 1825 he made a significant contribution to chemistry by producing aluminum for the first time. See also: James Clerk Maxwell, physics..
Hannah Arendt - label. Born of secular Jewish parents in Hanover and raised in Königsberg (the hometown of her admired precursor Immanuel Kant, now called Kaliningrad) and Berlin, Arendt studied philosophy with Martin Heidegger at Marburg. She appears to have had a short romantic relationship with Heidegger, an entanglement that has occasioned much criticism. After breaking off the relationship, Arendt moved to Heidelberg to write a dissertation on the concept of love in the thought of St. Augustine, under the direction of the existentialist philosopher-psychologist Karl Jaspers. The dissertation was published in 1929, but Arendt was prevented from habilitating (writing a second dissertation that would earn her permission to teach in German universities) in 1933 because she was a Jew, and thereupon fled Germany for Paris, where she met and befriended the literary critic.
Hermann von Helmholtz - Ferdinand Helmholtz, who had studied classical philology and philosophy, and who was a close friend of the publisher and philosoper Immanuel Hermann Fichte. Helmholtz's work is influenced by the philosophy of Johann Gottlieb Fichte and Kant. He tried to trace their theories in empirical matters like physiology. As a young man, Helmholtz was interested in natural science, but his father wanted him to study medicine because there was financial support for medical students. His first important scientific achievement, an 1847 physics treatise on the conservation of energy was written in the context of his medical studies and philosophical background. He had discovered the principle of conservation of energy while studying muscle metabolism. He tried to prove that no energy is lost in muscle movement, because this also meant that there were.
Henry Longueville Mansel - Hegelianism which was then beginning to take root in Oxford. In 1867 he succeeded AP Stanley as professor of ecclesiastical history, and in 1868 he was appointed dean of St Paul's. He died on the jist of July 1871. The philosophy of Mansel, like that of Sir William Hamilton, was mainly due to Aristotle, Immanuel Kant and Thomas Reid. Like Hamilton, Mansel maintained the purely formal character of logic, the duality of consciousness as testifying to both self and the external world, and the limitation of knowledge to the finite and "conditioned." His doctrines were developed in his edition of Aldrich's Artis logicae rudimenta (1849)--his chief contribution to the reviving study of Aristotle--and in his Prolegomena logica: an Inquiry into the Psychological Character of Logical Processes (1851, 2nd ed. enlarged 1862),.
History of philosophy - valid. A crucial assumption in Aristotelian logic is that it has to be about real objects. Two of Aristotle's syllogisms are invalid to modern eyes. For example, "All A are B. All A are C. Therefore, some B are C." This syllogism fails if set A is empty. Medieval Philosophy Medieval philosophy was greatly concerned with the nature of God, and the application of Aristotle's logic and thought to every area of life. If God exists at all, surely He is the most important feature of the universe, and therefore worthy of study. One continuing interest in this time was to prove the existence of God, through logic alone, if possible. One early effort was the Cosmological Argument, conventionally attributed to Thomas Aquinas. The argument roughly, is that everything that exists.
Higher criticism - a group of German Biblical scholars centered in Tübingen, including Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768-1834), David Friedrich Strauss (1808-1874), and Ludwig Feuerbach (1804-1872), who began in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries to analyze the historical records of the Middle East from Christian and Old Testament times, in search of independent confirmation of the events related in the Bible. They are the intellectual descendants of John Locke, David Hume, Immanuel Kant, Gotthold Lessing, Gottlieb Fichte, Georg Hegel, and the French rationalists. These ideas travelled to England with Samuel Taylor Coleridge and more with George Eliot's translations of Strauss's Life of Jesus (1846) and Feuerbach's Essence of Christianity (1854). La Vie de Jésus (1863), by a Frenchman, Ernest Renan (1823-1892), continued the same tradition. But three years earlier before the appearance of La.
History of Berlin - took refuge. Friedrich Wilhelm also built a standing army. Kingdom of Prussia In 1701 Friedrich III (1688-1701) crowned himself as Friedrich I (1701-1713), King in Prussia. (Not of Prussia, because he didn't possess all of Prussia.) He was mostly interested in decorum: he ordered the building of the castle Charlottenburg in the west of the city. His son, Friedrich Wilhelm I (1713-1740), in contrast, was a sparing man, who made Prussia an important military power. In 1709 Berlin counted 55,000 inhabitants, of whom 5,000 served in the army. In 1755 these figures had risen to 100,000 and 26,000. Furthermore, Friedrich Wilhelm built a wooden wall around the city with 14 gates, known as die Zollmauer. In 1740 Friedrich II, known as Frederick the Great (1740-1786) came to power. Berlin became, under.
