Inductive logic programming - Inductive logic programming Inductive logic programming (ILP) is a machine learning approach, which uses techniques of logic programming. From a database of facts and expected results, which are divided into positive and negative examples, an ILP system tries to derive a logic program that proves all the positive and none of the negative examples. Schema: positive examples + negative examples + background knowledge = rules. Inductive logic programming is particularly useful in natural language processing. Implementations Aleph ( http://web.comlab.ox.ac.uk/oucl/research/areas/machlearn/Aleph ) Foil ( ftp://ftp.cs.su.oz.au/pub/foil6.sh ) Lime ( http://cs.anu.edu.au/people/Eric.McCreath/lime.html ).
Logical programming - Logical programming Logical programming or constraint programming is a programming paradigm in which a set of attributes that a solution should have are specified rather than set of steps to obtain such a solution. A widely used logical programming language is Prolog. Another, more commercial language is Mercury. Schematically, the process is facts + rules = results. For a different approach, see Inductive logic programming. The monkey and banana problem is a famous problem studied in the community of logical programming. Instead of the programmer explicitly specifying the path for the monkey to reach the banana, the computer actually reasons out a possible way that the monkey reaches the banana. Temporal concurrent constraint programming (TCC) and non-deterministic temporal concurrent constraint programming (NTCC) are variants of constraint programming.
List of topics in logic - List of topics in logic This is a list of topics in logic, by Wikipedia page. See also list of rules of inference. There is a list of paradoxes on the paradox page. There is a list of fallacies on the logical fallacy page. Modern mathematical logic is at the list of mathematical logic topics page. There is a more complete list of logicians. For introductory set theory and other supporting material see the list of basic discrete mathematics topics. =A= Abacus logic -- Abduction (logic) -- Affirming the consequent -- Antecedent -- Antinomy -- Argument form -- Aristotelian logic -- Axiom -- Axiomatic system -- Axiomatization =B= Biconditional elimination -- Biconditional introduction -- Bivalence and related laws -- Boolean algebra =C= Categorial logic -- College logic --.
Logic - Logic Roughly speaking, logic is the study of prescriptive systems of reasoning, that is, systems proposed as guides for how people (as well, perhaps, as other intelligent beings/machines/systems) ought to reason. Logic says which forms of inference are valid and which are not. Traditionally, logic is studied as a branch of philosophy, but it can also be considered a branch of mathematics. How people actually reason is usually studied under other headings, including cognitive psychology. Table of contents showTocToggle("show","hide") 1 Logos: some words about logic 2 Aristotelian logic 3 Formal logic 4 Mathematical logic 5 Philosophical logic 6 Predicate logic 7 Multi-valued Logic 8 Logic and computers 9 Logic Puzzles 9.1 Example 9.2 Example 1 9.3 Example 2 9.4 Example 3 9.5 Solution to Example 1.
Expert system - be tackled by a human "expert" - a medical or other professional, in most cases. Real experts in the problem domain (which will typically be very narrow, for instance "diagnosing skin diseases in human teenagers") are asked to provide "rules of bums" on how they evaluate the problems, either explicitly with the aid of experienced system developers, or sometimes implicitly, by getting such experts to evaluate test cases and using computer programs to examine the test data and (in a strictly limited manner) derive rules from that. Simple systems use simple true/false logic to evaluate data, but more sophisticated systems are capable of performing at least some evaluation taking into account real-world uncertainties, using such methods as fuzzy logic. Such sophistication is difficult to develop and still highly imperfect. Application While.
Abductive reasoning - The semantics and the implementation of abduction cannot be reduced to those for deduction, as explanation cannot be reduced to implication. Applications include fault diagnosis, plan formation and default reasoning. Negation as failure in logic programming can both be given an abductive interpretation and also can be used to implement abduction. The abductive semantics of negation as failure leads naturally to an argumentation-theoretic interpretation of default reasoning in general. [Better explanation? Example?] ["Abductive Inference", John R. Josephson ]. See also: Deductive reasoning Inductive reasoning Logic This article (or an earlier version of it) contains material from FOLDOC, used with permission. Modify if needed..
Aleph - infinite sets. See Aleph number for a more detailed discussion. Other things called Aleph Aleph is also one of the most advanced systems for inductive logic programming. (Not to be confused with Alef, the concurrent programming language of choice for Plan 9) Aleph is also the name of a religion in Japan, formerly known as Aum Shinrikyo. Aleph is also the title of a short story by author Georg Brandes. Aleph One is a ongoing project related to the computer game Marathon. It can be found at http://source.bungie.org The Aleph is also the title of a short story by author Jorge Luis Borges.
Supervised learning - value of the function for any valid input object after having seen only a small number of training examples (i.e. pairs of input and target output). To achieve this, the learner has to generalize from the presented data to unseen situations in a "reasonable" way (see inductive bias). (Compare with unsupervised learning.) In order to solve a given problem of supervised learning (e.g. learning to recognize handwriting) one has to consider various steps: Determine the type of training examples. Before doing anything else, the engineer should decide what kind of data is to be used as an example. For instance, this might be a single handwritten character, a entire handwritten word, or a entire line of handwriting. Gathering a training set. The training set needs to be characteristic of the real-world.
Intuitionistic logic - Intuitionistic logic Intuitionistic logic, or constructivist logic, is the logic used in mathematical intuitionism and other forms of mathematical constructivism. Roughly speaking, 'intuitionism' holds that logic and mathematics are 'constructive' mental activities. That is, they are not analytic activities wherein deep properties of existence are revealed and applied. Instead, logic and mathematics are the application of internally consistent methods to realize more complex mental constructs (really, a kind of game). In a stricter sense, intuitionistic logic can be investigated as a very concrete and formal kind of mathematical logic. While it may be argued whether such a formal calculus really captures the philosophical aspects of intuitionism, it has properties which are also quite useful from a practical point of view. Both notions of the term will be.
Inductive bias - Inductive bias Informally speaking, the inductive bias of a machine learning algorithm refers to additional assumptions, that the learner will use to predict correct outputs for situations that have not been encountered so far. In machine learning one aims at the construction of algorithms, that are able to learn to predict a certain target ouput. For this the learner will be presented a limited number of training examples that demonstrate the intended relation of input and output values. After successful learning, the learner is supposed to approximate the correct output, even for examples that have not been shown during training. Without any additional assumptions, this task cannot be solved since unseen situations might have an arbitrary output value. The kind of necessary assumptions about the nature.
Hoare logic - Hoare logic Hoare logic is a formal system developed by the British computer scientist C. A. R. Hoare, and published in his 1969 paper "An axiomatic basis for computer programming". The purpose of the system is to provide a set of logical rules which one can use to reason about computer programs. Let C be a line, or sequence of lines, in a computer program, and let P and Q be logical predicates such that if P is true before C is executed then Q will necessarily be true after C is executed. Then the following expression {P} C {Q} is an expression in Hoare logic, also known as a Hoare triple. Note that if C does not terminate, then there is no "after", so Q can.
Formal semantics of programming languages - Formal semantics of programming languages In theoretical computer science formal semantics is the field concerned with the rigorous mathematical study of the meaning of programming languages and models of computation. The formal semantics of a language is given by a mathematical model to represent the possible computations described by the language. There are several approaches to formal semantics. These include: Denotational semantics Operational semantics Axiomatic semantics Categorical semantics (also called Functorial semantics) The field of formal semantics also studies the relations between different models, the relations between different approaches to meaning, and the relation between computation and the underlying mathematical structures, from fields such as logic, set theory, model theory, category theory, etc. It has close links with other areas of computer science such as the design of.
Dynamic programming language - Dynamic programming language In computer science, dynamic programming language is a kind of programming language in which computer programs change their structure as they run: new functions may be introduced, functions may vanish, new classes of objects may be created, new modules may appear. The details differ between languages, but in general, it is extremely difficult to compile a dynamic language down to a binary, and it is extremely difficult, perhaps impossible, to enforce design contract on a dynamic language. The code would have to understand itself in order to be able to decide whether or not a class that doesn't exist yet will meet meet the requirements of an abstract class of which it purports to belong. For methods to come and go from existence, a.
Declarative programming - Declarative programming Declarative programming is an approach to computer programming that takes a different approach from traditional imperative programming in Fortran, C++ or Java. Whereas imperative programming gives the computer a list of instructions to execute in a particular order, declarative programming describes to the computer a set of conditions and lets the computer figure out how to satisfy them. Declarative programming includes both functional programming and logic programming. Declarative languages describe relationships between variables in terms of functions or inference rules. The language executor (an interpreter or compiler) applies a fixed algorithm to these relations to produce a result. Examples of declarative programming languages include Miranda, Prolog and SQL. Declarative programming languages are extensively used in solving artificial intelligence and constraint-satisfaction problems. See also: 4GL, constraint.
Aspect-oriented programming - Aspect-oriented programming In computer science, aspect-oriented programming is a programming paradigm that centers around constructs called aspects, which describe concerns of a separate set of objects, classes or functions. Aspect-oriented programming is not limited to object-oriented programming, though. An aspect describes points (join points) in a program, where the aspect will affect the program's semantics. A set of join points is called a (pointcut). Now methodss or functions may be called in the aspect (called advices then), that may implement behaviour that would normally crosscut behaviour of the core concern of the application. For example, in a credit card application billing would be a core concern, and logging and persistence of participating objects would be concerns, that most likely crosscut the whole object hierarchy. Separating these concerns from.
Categorical list of programming languages - Categorical list of programming languages This is a list of programming language grouped by category. See also Alphabetical list of programming languages Chronological list of programming languages Generational list of programming languages Assembly languages directly correspond to a machine language (see below) in order to allow machine code instructions to be written in a form understandable by humans. Assembly languages allow programmers to use symbolic addresses which are later converted to absolute addresses by the assembler. Most assemblers also allow for macros and symbolic constants as well. SSK (Sistema Simvolicheskogo Kodirovaniya, or "System of symbolic coding") for Minsk family of computers. AKI (AvtoKod Ingenera, i.e., "engineer's autocode") for Minsk family of computers was half-step away from assembly languages and doesn't really fit into any other categories in this.
The Logic of Scientific Discovery - The Logic of Scientific Discovery It would be a common place to refer to well-known terms such as inductive and deductive methods in the logic of scientific discoveries. (See more under inductive reasoning.) Or, we could cite the three words preferred in dialectical materialism as a direction of the logical development. First comes a thesis which is attacked by an antithesis. The fight of the two regularly ends with a synthesis, unless if one of the camps has not enough power and representation in the media, therefore remains opressed for a long time. New ideas and constructive theories sometimes remain neglected or ignored, simply because there is no such science yet. Certain interdisciplinary sciences do not belong to any other, clearly defined, discipline. For example, it.
Combinatory logic - Combinatory logic This article is not about combinatorial logic, a topic in electronics. Combinatory logic is a simplified model of computation, used in computability theory (the study of what can be computed) and proof theory (the study of what can be mathematically proven.) The theory, despite its simplicity, captures many essential features of the nature of computation. Combinatory logic is a variation of the lambda calculus, in which lambda expressions (used to allow for functional abstraction) are replaced by a limited set of primitive functions. Table of contents showTocToggle("show","hide") 1 Summary of the lambda calculus 2 Combinatory calculi 2.1 Combinatory terms 2.2 Examples of combinators 2.3 Completeness of the S-K basis 2.3.1 Conversion of a lambda term to an equivalent combinatorial term 2.3.2 Explanation of the T[ ].
Cut and paste programming - Cut and paste programming Cut and paste programming is an informal computer programming style that simply copies code from one to one another. It is generally criticized as a bad practice. The term is in conjecture with a common activity in computing cut and paste. When programming, you take a generic algorithm and customize it for a task. Sometimes you have a copy of an implementation of that algorithm laying around that you can copy. OO tells us not to do that. Someone once said, "If you're going to make a mistake, make it in a big way". Keeping one sacred copy that must be correct could certainly accomplish that. However, it makes it possible to fix a problem once instead of having it spread around the code..
Curry (programming language) - Curry (programming language) Curry is a functional logic programming language, based on the Haskell language, that combines elements of functional programming and logic programming. See http://www.informatik.uni-kiel.de/~mh/curry/.
