Intellectual capital - Intellectual capital Intellectual capital is a term with various definitions in different theories of economics. Accordingly its only truly neutral definition is as a debate over economic "intangibles". Ambiguous combinations of instructional capital and individual capital employed in productive enterprise are usually what is meant by the term, when it is used to actually refer to a capital asset whose yield is intellectual rights. Such use is rare, however, and the term rarely or never appears in accounting proper - it refers to a debate, and to the assumed capital base that creates intellectual property, rather than an auditable style of capital. Perhaps due to their industry focus, the term "intellectual capital" is employed mostly by theorists in information technology, innovation research, technology transfer and other.
Intellectual property - Intellectual property Intellectual property or IP refers to certain kinds of exclusive rights to intellectual capital, some forms of which can expire after a set period of time, and other forms of which can last indefinitely. Common types of intellectual property include conflicting areas of law: Copyrights, which give the holder some exclusive rights to control some reproduction of works of authorship, such as books and music, for a certain period of time. Patents give the holder an exclusive right to use and license use of an invention for a certain period, typically 20 years. Trademarks are distinctive names, phrases or marks used to identify products to consumers. Trade secrets, where a company keeps information secret, perhaps by enforcing a contract under which those given access.
Individual capital - Individual capital Individual capital refers to inalienable or personal traits of persons, tied to their bodies and available only through their own free will, such as skill, creativity, enterprise, courage, capacity for moral example, non-communicable wisdom, invention or empathy, non-transferable personal trust and leadership. It was recognized as an intangible quality of persons in economics back to at least Adam Smith. He distincted it (as "enterprise") from labour (economics) which can be coerced and is usually seen as strictly imitative (learned or transmitted, via such means as apprenticeship). Marxist economics refers instead to "an individuals social capital - individuals are sources neither of creativity and innovation, nor management skill. A problem with that analysis is that it simply cannot explain the substitution problem and lack of demand.
Instructional capital - Instructional capital Instructional capital is encoded symbolic know-how that persons, communities, organizations and software exploit to predict, or avoid future events they deem not desirable, or create those they desire. It is inherently shared, predictable, and empirical. Many people or machines can read it, test it, use it, and in many cases, they can change or challenge it. Patent or non-fiction copyright laws provide a means of protection for such shared instructions when compiled and registered according to the instructions of the law itself. Law may itself be the best example of instructional capital. As a capital asset, the Wikipedia article database itself is most reasonably considered a piece of instructional capital. When separated from the individual and social context of its users and contributors, e.g. as.
Intellectual rights - Intellectual rights Intellectual rights (from the French "droits intellectuels") is a term sometimes used to refer to the legal protection afforded to owners of intellectual capital. This notion is more commonly referred to as "intellectual property", though "intellectual rights" more aptly describes the nature of the protections afforded by most nations. Both terms were used in Europe during the 19th century as a means of distinguishing between two different views of intellectual protection. "Intellectual property" was generally used to advocate a belief that copyrights and patents should provide rights akin to physical property rights. The term "intellectual rights" was used by those who felt that such protection should take the form of temporary, limited grants. Although most modern copyright systems do not treat copyrighted or patented.
Capitalism - the formation and trade in ownership of corporations (see corporate personhood and companies) for buying and selling goods, especially capital goods (including land and labor), in a relatively free (meaning, free from state control) market competing (and contentious) theories that developed in the 19th century, in the context of the industrial revolution, and 20th century, in the context of the Cold War, meant to justify the private ownership of capital, to explain the operation of such markets, and to guide the application or elimination of government regulation of property and markets and beliefs about the advantages of such practices. Table of contents showTocToggle("show","hide") 1 Etymology 2 Capitalism as an economic system 3 Characteristics of Capitalist Economies 3.1 Economic Growth 3.2 Distribution of Wealth 3.3 Evolving Network Structure 3.4 Unknown/Unapproved Direction of.
Capital (economics) - Capital (economics) Capital has a number of related meanings in economics, finance and accounting. In finance and accounting, capital generally refers to financial wealth, especially that used to start or maintain a business. It is assumed that other styles of capital, e.g. physical capital, can be acquired with money, so there is little need for any further analysis. Table of contents showTocToggle("show","hide") 1 Capital in classical economic theory 2 Broadening the definition of capital 3 See also Capital in classical economic theory In classical economics, capital is one of three factors of production, the others being land and labour. Goods with the following features are capital: It can be used in the production of other goods (this is what makes it a factor of production). It.
Kinshasa - Kinshasa Kinshasa is the capital and largest city of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. With a population of about 4.5 million, it is also one of the largest cities in sub-Saharan Africa. It is a city of sharp contrasts, with posh residential and commercial areas, two universities, and sprawling slums coexisting side by side. Kinshasa is located along the southern bank of the Congo River, directly opposite the city of Brazzaville, capital of the Republic of the Congo. It was founded as a trading post by Henry Morton Stanley in 1881 and named Léopoldville in honor of King Léopold II of Belgium, who ruled the vast territory that is now the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The post flourished as the last navigable port along the Congo.
Korean Buddhism - transmission of Buddhism to Japan. The official date of the first mission from Baekje, in which Korean monks arrived bringing Buddhist texts and images, is variously given as 538 and 552. In 577, at the request of Japanese rulers, a second contingent of Buddhist monks, nuns, sculptors and architects were sent to Japan to spread Buddhism and Buddhist culture, mainly in Nara. Buddhist missions were also sent from Goguryeo and Silla, and continued throughout the Unified Silla period. Thus, the first few centuries of development of Buddhist culture in Japan were greatly Korean-influenced, as it was not until the eighth and ninth centuries when Japanese monks began to study in the Tang in significant numbers. Unified Silla Period (668-918) The kingdom of Silla was originally the weakest and located in the.
Kraków - the United States of America.) Kraków (sometimes also spelt Krakow or Cracow in English; in full Royal Capital City of Kraków, Polish: Kraków, Królewskie Stołeczne Miasto Kraków; ) is one of the oldest and biggest cities in Poland. This historical town is situated on the Vistula River (Wisła) at the foot of Wawel Hill in southern Poland region of Little Poland (Małopolska). It is also the capital of the Lesser Poland Voivodship (województwo małopolskie) since 1999, previously the capital of Krakow Voivodship since 14th century. Population: 741,000 (2001) Table of contents showTocToggle("show","hide") 1 General background 2 History 2.1 4th century 2.2 8th century 2.3 10th century 2.4 11th to 13th century 2.5 14th century 2.6 15th to 16 century 2.7 15th century 2.8 16th century 2.9 20th century 3 Kraków Today.
Jadavpur University - Special Assistance, including English and Comparative Literature, and has the only Department of Film Studies in the subcontinent. Research in inter-disciplinary and emerging areas happens to be one of its hallmarks. Jadavpur University is in Kolkata, famous for its cultural and intellectual heritage. It had been the capital of British India for a long time, and has been a major centre of the Indian struggle for independence. Jadavpur University is a direct descendant of the movement for indigenous education in the modern sector, and the spirit is still strong in its programmes and practices..
James J. Hill - was a noted American railroad tycoon. He showed his aptitude for the intellectual side of the world early in life; although he only ever had nine years of formal schooling, by the time he had finished (he was forced to leave school in 1852 due to the death of his father), he was adept at algebra, geometry, land surveying, and English. His particular talents for English and mathematics would be critical later in his life. After working for a while as a clerk (at which job he learnt bookkeeping), Hill settled in St. Paul, Minnesota at the age of 18. His first job at St. Paul was with a steamboat company, where he worked as a bookkeeper. His talents at this earned him a great deal of respect, and by 1860.
Jacques Rancičre - the University of Paris-VIII. A student of Louis Althusser, Rancičre contributed to the influential volume Reading "Capital" (though his contribution is not contained in the partial English translation) before publicly breaking with Althusser over his attitude toward the May 1968 student uprising in Paris. Works Rancičre's work in English includes: The Nights of Labor: The Workers' Dream in Nineteenth-Century France (1989): This book is an influential work of social history which examines in detail the records of ordinary workers' lives in order to produce a new picture of their surprising political sophistication. ISBN 0877228337. The Ignorant Schoolmaster: Five Lessons in Intellectual Emancipation (1991): This book describes the emancipatory education of Joseph Jacotot, a post-Revolutionary philosopher of education who discovered that he could teach things he did not know (for instance, Jacotot.
Joseph Schumpeter - greatest 20th century economists and one of the best read. He began his career studying under the great Austrian capital theorist Eugen von Boehm-Bawerk and ended up teaching at Harvard from 1932 on. He was generally considered not to have been a very good teacher because he tried to pack too much into each lecture. Although Schumpeter encouraged some young mathematical economists, Schumpeter was not a mathematician and tried to integrate sociological understanding into his economic theories. From current thought it appears that Schumpeter's ideas on business cycles and economic development could not be captured in the mathematics of his day - they need the language of non-linear dynamical systems to be partially formalized. Schumpeter's vast erudition is apparent in his posthumous History of Economic Analysis, although some of his judgments.
Vienna - Slovak: Viedeň, Serbian Beč ) is the capital of Austria, and also one of Austria's nine federal statess (Bundesland Wien). It is situated on the river Danube, and is surrounded by the Austrian federal state of Lower Austria. With a population of about 1.8 million, Vienna is the largest city and the cultural and political centre of Austria. The United Nations Industrial Development Organization, the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries and the International Atomic Energy Agency are situated in Vienna. The Austrian state of Vienna on the map of Austria Table of contents showTocToggle("show","hide") 1 History 1.1 Historical population 2 Districts 3 Intellectual Life 4 Culture 5 Events 6.
Jovianus Pontanus - whose generosity his fortunes had been raised. Pontano illustrates in a marked manner the position of power to which men of letters and learning had arrived in Italy. He entered Naples as a penniless scholar. He was almost immediately made the companion and trusted friend of its sovereign, loaded with honours, lodged in a fine house, enrolled among the nobles of the realm, enriched, and placed at the very height of social importance. Following the example of Pomponio Leto in Rome and of Cosimo de 'Medici at Florence, Pontano founded an academy for the meetings of learned and distinguished men. This became the centre of fashion as well as of erudition in the southern capital, and subsisted long after its founder's death. In 1461 he married his first wife, Adriana Sassone,.
Jose Joaquin Fernandez De Lizardi - to enter the civil service as a minor magistrate in the Taxco-Acapulco region. He married there in 1805, and the necessity of providing for a growing family led him to supplement his meager income by writing. Lizardi began his literary career in 1808 with the publication of a poem in honor of Fernando VII — a patriotic stance for a Mexican intellectual to take in the year of the Napoleonic invasion of Spain, and one in line with Lizardi's later proto-nationalist views. At the beginning of Mexico's wars of independence in November 1810, Morelos's insurgent forces fought their way into Taxco, where Lizardi was heading the local government as acting subdelegado. In the face of an initial insurgent victory, Lizardi appears to have played both sides. On the one hand, he.
Justinian I - Digesto (or Pandectae), Institutiones, and the Codex. The Corpus was drafted by a group of commissioners headed by the quaestor Tribonian, and was written in Latin, the traditional language of the Roman Empire which was now poorly understood by most citizens of the Eastern Empire. The Corpus was later supplimented by the Authenticum or Novellae Constitutiones, a collection of new laws issued during Justinian's reign. The Novellae were written in Greek, the common language of the Empire. The Corpus is the basis of latin jurisprudence (including ecclesiastical Canon law: ecclesia vivit lege romana) and a unique document about the life in the remains of the Roman Empire at the time. It is a collection that gathers the many sources in which the leges (laws) and the other rules were expressed or.
Ingenuity - of Thomas Homer-Dixon, building on that of Richard Romer, to refer to what is usually called instructional capital. Ingenuity is often inherent in creative individuals, and thus is considered hard to separate from individual capital. It is not clear if Dixon or Romer considered it impossible to do so, or if they were simply not familiar with the prior analysis of "applied ideas", "intellectual capital", "talent", or "innovation" where instructional and individual contributions have been carefully separated, by economic theorists. See also: ingenuity gap, instructional capital.
Islamic conquest of Afghanistan - eighth and ninth centuries ancestors of many of today's Turkic-speaking Afghans settled in the Hindu Kush area (partly to obtain better grazing land) and began to assimilate much of the culture and language of the Pashtun tribes already present there. By the middle of the ninth century, Abbasid rule had faltered, and semi-independent states began to emerge throughout the empire. In the Hindu Kush area, three short-lived, local dynasties ascended to power. The best known of the three, the Samanid, extended its rule from Bukhara as far south as India and west as Iran. Although Arab Muslim intellectual life still was centered in Baghdad, Iranian Muslim scholarship, that is, Shia Islam, predominated in the Samanid areas at this time. By the mid-tenth century, the Samanid Dynasty had crumbled in the face.
