Intelligentsia - Intelligentsia Intelligentsia is a broad term labelling a social group comprised of people who make a living out of their mental skills. The term first appeared in Poland in the first half of 19th century. It was later accepted into Russian, and from there it came into English. The intelligentsia as a social class per se however does not exist in western communities. The Intelligentsia in Poland In Poland, the intelligentsia comprised a social class. After the partitionss Polish society divided into nobles and peasants, while cities in general remained very weak. But the need for educated specialists created a new class of people: educated, hired professionals: clerks, medics, lawyers etc. They were recruited mainly from amongst former nobles, but also from other circles. The Polish.
Józef Marcinkiewicz - Schauder, and Kaczmarz. He was taken as a Polish POW to a Soviet camp in Starobielsk. In 1940 murdered, together with 15 000 other Polish intelligentsia in the Katyn massacre on the mass murder site in Kharkov, Ukraine. His parents, to whom he gave his manuscripts before the beginning of WWII, were also murdered by the Soviets. Their faith is described in his biography in the hidden way, that could have been understood only by those, who can read small allusions about Soviet terror: War broke out a few days after Marcinkiewicz returned to Wilno. Zygmund writes On September 2, the second day of the war, I came across him accidentally in the street in Wilno, already in military uniform ... We agreed to meet the same day in the evening.
Intellectual - century on the concept of the clerisy, a class rather than a type of individual, and a secular equivalent of the (Anglican) clergy, with a duty of upholding (national) culture. The idea of the intelligentsia, in comparison, dates from roughly the same time, and is based more concretely on the class of 'mental' or white-collar workers. From that time onwards, in Europe and elsewhere, some variants of the idea of an intellectual class have been important (not least to intellectuals, self-styled). The degrees of actual involvement in art, or politics, journalism and education, of nationalist or internationalist or ethnic sentiment, constituting the 'vocation' of an intellectual, have never become fixed. Some intellectuals have been vehemently anti-academic; at times universities and their professoriat have been synonymous with intellectualism, but in other periods.
Ivo Andric - universals in human condition-not unlike Andrić's chief influence Kierkegaard. His best short stories and novellas are located in his native Bosnia and Herzegovina and frequently center on collisions between three main Bosnia's nations: Serbs, Croats and Bosniaks. The latter are in his fiction almost exclusively referred to as "Turks". Although social and denominational tensions are the scene for the majority of stories, Andrić's shorter fictions cannot be reduced to a sort of regional chronicle: rooted frequently in rather prosaic and pedestrian Bosnian Franciscan chronicles, they are expressions of a vision of life, because for Andrić, as for other great regionalist authors like Hardy or Hawthorne, the regional irradiates the universal. yet, with the collapse of Yugoslavia other, until then suppressed, dubieties about Andrić's work began to pop up. The commonest charge.
History of Moldova - Republic") in Transnistria, with its capital at Tiraspol. Although the Supreme Soviet immediately declared these declarations null, both "republics" went on to hold elections. Stepan Topal was elected president of the "Gagauz Republic" in December 1991, and Igor' N. Smirnov was elected president of the "Dnestr Republic" in the same month. Approximately 50,000 armed Moldovan nationalist volunteers went to Transnistria, where widespread violence was temporarily averted by the intervention of the Russian 14th Army. (The Soviet 14th Army, now the Russian 14th Army, had been headquartered in Chisinau under the High Command of the Southwestern Theater of Military Operations since 1956.) Negotiations in Moscow among the Gagauz, the Transnistrian Slavs, and the government of the Soviet Socialist Republic of Moldova failed, and the government refused to join in further negotiations. In.
History of Angola - until outlawed in 1961. Colonial Portuguese rule in the 20th century was characterized by rigid dictatorship and exploitation of African labor. It was this forced labor that provided the basis for development of a plantation economy and, by the mid-20th century, a major mining sector. Forced labor combined with British financing to construct three railroads from the coast to the interior, the most important of which was the transcontinental Benguela railroad that linked the port of Lobito with the copper zones of the Belgian Congo and what is now Zambia. Colonial economic development did not translate into social development for native Angolans. The Portuguese regime encouraged white immigration, especially after 1950, which intensified racial antagonisms--many new Portuguese settlers arrived after World War II, making up 5% of the population by the.
History of the Jews in Russia and Soviet Union - other countries. The religious zeal of such a theory reasoned for the ultimate measures against enemies of the faith, including the Jews. Jews were not tolerated in the area of Muscovy, from 1721 the official doctrine of Imperial Russia was openly anti-Semitic. When the Russian army captured a Polish town, as in happened in 1563 when Polotsk, the big center of trade in Lithuania, was captured all Jews were murdered at once. Even if Jews were tolerated for some modest time, eventually they were expelled, as when the captured part of Ukraine was cleared from Jews in the year 1727. However, the traditional measures failed when the main terititory of Poland was annexed during partitions. During the secondnd (1793) and the third (1795) partitions, large populations of Jews were taken over.
History of East Germany - monitored public life with a broad network of agents and contributed to eliminating opposition and regimenting political and social affairs. The Third Party Congress of July 1950 emphasized industrial progress. The industrial sector, employing 40 percent of the working population, was subjected to further nationalization, which resulted in the formation of the Publicly Owned Enterprises (Volkseigene Betriebe--VEBs). These enterprises incorporated 75 percent of the industrial sector. The First Five-Year Plan (1951-1955) introduced centralized state planning; it stressed high production quotas for heavy industry and increased labor productivity. The pressures of the plan caused an exodus of East German citizens to West Germany. In 1951 monthly emigration figures fluctuated between 11,500 and 17,000. By 1953 an average of 37,000 men, women, and children were leaving each month. Stalin died in March 1953..
History of Brazil (1889-1930) - patron-client political machines of the countryside enabled the coffee oligarchs to dominate state structures to their advantage, particularly the week central state structures that effectively devolved power to local agrarian oligarchies. Known as coronelismo, this was a classic boss system under which the control of patronage was centralized in the hands of a locally dominant oligarch known as a coronel, who would dispense favors in return for loyalty. For details, see the main article coronelismo. The "politics of the governors," dominated by the latifundias, kept a relative peace until the end of World War I. Urban Brazil, the one foreigners saw from the decks of ships, prospered. But there was no integrated national economy. Rather, Brazil had a grouping of regional economies that exported their own specialty products to European and.
History of Socialism: Part 1 - the war and achieve socialism. At first he was ignored, but by 1917 war-weariness led to splits in several socialist parties, notably the German Social Democrats. The Russian Revolution of 1917 proved Lenin right, in the sense that a revolution turned out to be the only way to get Russia out of the war. It also seemed to prove that he was right on the question of revolution: Russia was certainly the only country in the world where socialists had taken power. This led minority factions in most of the world's socialist parties to break away and form new parties in support of the Leninist model: these came to be called Communist parties, and in 1919 Lenin organised them into a new international party, the Communist International or Comintern. In some.
History of Czechoslovakia - liberation benefited the KSC. Czechoslovaks, bitterly disappointed by the West at Munich (1938), responded favorably to both the KSC and the Soviet alliance. Communists secured strong representation in the popularly elected national committees, the new organs of local administration. In the May 1946 election, the KSC won in the Czech part of the country (40,17%), and the anti-Communist Democratic Party won in Slovakia (62%). In sum, however, the KSC won a plurality of 38 percent of the vote at countrywide level. Benes continued as president of the republic,. The Communist leader Gottwald became prime minister. Most important, although the communists held only a minority of portfolios, they were able to gain control over all key ministries (Ministry of the Interior etc. ). In 1947, Stalin summoned Gottwald to Moscow; upon his.
Holocaust - have been found. In addition, considerable effort was expended over the course of the Holocaust to find increasingly efficient means of killing more people, for example, by switching from carbon monoxide poisoning in the Aktion Reinhard death camps of Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka to the use of Zyklon-B at Majdanek and Auschwitz; gas vans using carbon monoxide for mass killings were used in the Chelmno death camp. In addition to mass killings, Nazis conducted many experiments with prisoners, children inclusive. Dr. Josef Mengele, one of the most widely known Nazis, was known as the "Angel of Death" by the inmates of Auschwitz, for his experiments. The full extent of what was happening in German-controlled areas was not known until after the war. However, numerous rumors and eye-witness accounts from escapees and others.
George V of the United Kingdom - Schleswig-Holstein, simply stopped using their territorial designations. In Letter's Patent dated 30 November 1917, the King restricted the style Royal Highness and the titular dignity of Prince or Princess of Great Britain and Ireland to the children of the Sovereign, the children of the sons of the Sovereign, and the eldest living son of the eldest living son of a Prince of Wales. The Letters Patent also stated that "the titles of Royal Highness, Highness or Serene Highness, and the titular dignity of Prince and Princess shall cease except those titles already granted and remaining unrevoked." Finally, relatives of the British Royal Family who fought on the German side, such as Prince Ernst August of Hanover, 3rd Duke of Cumberland and Teviotdale (the senior male-line great grandson of George III) and.
General Jewish Labor Union - the Bund suffered from a steady loss of active members to emigration. Many Bundists became active in forming socialist parties in Palestine, and later in Israel. The Bund won converts mainly among Jewish artisans and workers, but also among the growing Jewish intelligentsia. It acted as both a political party (as far as political conditions allowed) and as a trade union. It joined with the Labor Zionists and other groups to form self-defense organisations to protect Jewish communities against pogroms and government troops. During the revolution of 1905 the Bund headed the revolutionary movement in the Jewish towns, particularly in what is now Belarus. The Bund naturally welcomed the February 1917 Russian Revolution, which saw the estabishment of a government pledged to abolish official anti-Semitism and introduce democracy. But the October.
Generalplan Ost - because of their patriotism destined of dispersion or extermination, and Russians. Generalplan Ost included also Endlösung der Judenfrage. Main initiator of the plan was Heinrich Himmler. During the war Nazis started realisation the plan by expellings in Poland (Zamojszczyzna etc) and Ukraine. Also operations such Operation Tannenberg (Unternehmen Tannenberg) and different Intelligenzaktionen which included shootings of Polish intelligentsia and activists were made part of this plan. Other elements of the plan were Sonderaktionen: Krakau, Ischenstochau, Lublin i Bürgerbraukeller, Außerordentliche Befriedungsaktion, Generalsiedlungsplan, Planung und Aufbau im Osten, SS-Friedensbauprogramm, Unternehmen Reinhardt etc..
Education in Czechoslovakia - schools and who becomes an apprentice) took on political overtones. In the 1950s the children of political prisoners, well-to-do farmers, or known adherents of one or another religion were victims of the party's discriminatory admissions policies. Youngsters of working-class or peasant background ostensibly had preference over those of other socioeconomic groups. However, a look at students' backgrounds during the 1950s and 1960s reveals that in no year did children of workers or peasants constitute a majority of those in institutions of higher education. Precise estimates vary, but through the mid-1960s workers' families gained an average of one-third of the admission slots, peasants a mere 10 percent, and "others" nearly 60 percent. The proletariat fared better in Slovakia, where nearly half of those with secondary school or university degrees came from workers'.
1977 Soviet Constitution - state has become the state of the whole people." That is, according to the new Constitution, the government no longer represented the workers alone but expressed "the will and interests of the workers, peasants, and intelligentsia, the working people of all nations and nationalities in the country." Compared with previous constitutions, the Brezhnev Constitution extended the bounds of constitutional regulation of society. The first chapter defined the leading role of the CPSU and established principles for the management of the state and the government. Later chapters established principles for economic management and cultural relations. The 1977 Constitution was long and detailed. It included twenty-eight more articles than the 1936 Soviet Constitution. The Constitution explicitly defined the division of responsibilities between the central and republic governments. For example, the Constitution placed the.
2002 Gujarat violence - these as a pogrom. Points of view also differ on what fraction of the victims were Muslims: some believe the vast majority of victims were Muslims or perceived as Muslims, while others dispute that position. On February 28, in one incident in Ahmedabad, at Naroda Patia, across the road from the State Reserve Police (SRP) quarters, a crowd of about 5000 people set fire to the entire locality, gang-raping women and girls before killing them, altogether killing at least 65 people. The community mosque, Noorani Masjid, facing the SRP, was burnt using LPG (liquefied petroleum gas) cylinders. In the following days, hundreds of young people with swords, daggers, axes, and iron rods walked around the area, shouting "Jai Shri Ram". According to Human Rights Watch, who visited Naroda Patia three weeks.
African Renaissance - ethical norms and with great abandon, to acquire wealth, all of them tied by an invisible thread which they hope will connect them to Morningside and Borrowdale and Victoria Island and Kabulonga. Everyday, you ad I see those who would be citizens of Kabulonga and Borrowdale and Victoria Island and Morningside being born everywhere in our country. Their object in life is to acquire personal wealth by means both foul and fair. Their measure of success is the amount of wealth they can accumulate and the ostentation they can achieve, which will convince all that they are a success, because, in a visible way, they are people of means. Thus, they seek access to power or access to those who have access to power so that they can corrupt the political.
Atlantis - Saturnia or Ogygia about five days' sail to the west of Britain. He added that westwards from that island, there were the three islands of Cronus, to where proud and warlike men used to come from the continent beyond the islands, in order to offer sacrifice to the gods of the ocean. An important Greek festival of Pallas Athene, the Panathenaea was dated from the days of king Theseus. It consisted of a solemn procession to the Acropolis in which a peplos was carried to the goddess, for she had once saved the city, gaining victory over the nation of Poseidon, that is, the Atlanteans. As Lewis Spence comments, this cult was in existence already 125 years before Plato, which means that the story could not be invented by him. The.
