Law of non-contradiction - Law of non-contradiction In logic, the law of non-contradiction judges as false any proposition P asserting that both proposition Q and its denial, proposition not-Q, are true at the same time and "in the same respect". In the words of Aristotle, "One cannot say of something that it is and that it is not in the same respect and at the same time." More tersely, for any proposition P, it is not both the case that P and not-P. Bivalence and related laws examines how the law of non-contradiction is related to similar laws, such as the principle of bivalence, with which it should not be confused. See also: Contradiction.
Anarchist law - Anarchist law The expression Anarchist law refers to a concept about the law to use in anarchies, although some people define anarchies as communities without any law. In the hypothesis of such systems, law—it is said—would have to exist in a way that it would be effective without the need for any authority, given that in this vision it is considered that an authority normally uses violence, emotional manipulation or propaganda to enforce the law in hierarchical societies. Table of contents showTocToggle("show","hide") 1 A contradiction in terms? 2 Disambiguation 3 Usenet law (netiquette) 4 Non-hierarchical media law 5 Internal non-hierarchical business law 6 Anarchist software law (Copyleft) 7 Anarchist law in international political action groups 8 Decision-making in non-hierarchical societies 9.
Contradiction - Contradiction Broadly speaking, a contradiction is when two or more statements, ideas, or actions are seen as incompatible. One must, it seems, reject at least one of the ideas outright. In logic, contradiction is defined much more specifically, usually as the simultaneous assertion of a statement and its negation, also known as its denial. (See: the Law of non-contradiction.) This, of course, assumes that "negation" has a non-problematic definition. (Coming sometime: article on negation.) Table of contents showTocToggle("show","hide") 1 Colloquial use 2 Paradoxes associated with contradiction 3 Proof by contradiction 4 Contradictions and common sense psychology Colloquial use In everyday speech, "contradiction" may be used in a much less rigorous way than in formal logic. For example, there is nothing logically contradictory involved in a man.
Nonconstructive proof - existence of something, but which does not say how to construct it. Many nonconstructive proofs assume the non-existence of the thing whose existence is required to be proven, and deduce a contradiction. The non-existence of the thing has therefore been shown to be logically impossible, and yet an actual example of the thing has not been found. Some examples of nonconstructive proofs An example is the following proof of the theorem "There exist irrational numbers and such that is rational." Recall that is irrational, and 2 is rational. Consider the number . Either it is rational or it is irrational. If it is rational, then the theorem is true, with and both being . If it is irrational, then the theorem is true, with being and being , since A constructive.
Law of excluded middle - Law of excluded middle The law of excluded middle (tertium non datur in Latin) states that for any proposition P, it is true that (P or not-P). For example, if P is Joe is bald then the inclusive disjunction Joe is bald, or Joe is not bald is true. This is not quite the same as the principle of bivalence, which states that P must be either true or false. It also differs from Law of non-contradiction, which states (P and not-P) is false. The law of excluded middle only says that the total (P or not-P) is true, but does not comment on what truth values P itself may take. This leaves open the possibility that certain systems of logic may reject bivalence (by allowing.
Keynesian economics - that there is no strong automatic tendency for the level of output and employment in the economy to move toward the full employment level. This conflicts with the conclusion of neoclassical economics, known as Say's law, that adjustment in prices and interest rates would tend to produce full employment in the economy. Historical background Keynes developed these ideas in response to debate about the British economy that had started even before the Great Depression began in 1929. The nation had not achieved full employment since the end of World War I, as the neoclassical theory (referred to as 'Classical' by Keynes) suggested that it should have. In the neoclassical theory, departures from full employment were generally seen as short-term aberrations, but during this period mass unemployment had become a persistent phenomenon.
Jan Lukasiewicz - mathematical logic. He thought innovatively about traditional propositional logic, the principle of non-contradiction and the Law of excluded middle. Łukasiewicz worked on multi-valued logics, including his own three-valued propositional calculus, the first non-classical logical calculus. He is responsible for one of the most elegant axiomatizations of classical propositional logic; it has just three axioms and is one of the most used axiomatizations today. He also pursued philosophy, approaching the human aspects of scientific theory-making with ideas similar to those of Karl Popper. Łukasiewicz's Polish Notation of 1920 was at the root of the idea of the recursive stack a last-in, first-out computer memory store invented by Charles Hamblin of the New South Wales University of Technology (NSWUT), and first implemented in 1957. This design led to the English Electric multi-programmed KDF9.
Jewish views of religious pluralism - in the form of Adam not one is similar to any other." (Mishnah, Sanhedrin, 4:5) Some rabbis in the Talmud view Christianity as a form of idolatry prohibited not only to Jews, but to gentiles as well. Rabbis with these views did not claim that it was idolatry in the same literal sense as pagan idolatry in Biblical times, but that it relied on idolatrous forms of worship (i.e. to a Trinity of gods and to statues and saints) (see Babylonian Talmud, Hullin, 13b). Other rabbis disagreed, and did not hold it to be idolatry. By the middle ages a new consensus was reached in the Jewish community in which Christianity was generally not held to be idolatry. ("Exclusiveness and Tolerance", Jacob Katz, Oxford Univ. Press, 1961, Ch.10) The Talmud contains.
Victor Cousin - logical need of grouping details round central principles. There was a moral elevation in Cousin's spiritual philosophy which touched the hearts of his listeners, and seemed to be the basis for higher development in national literature and art, and even in politics, than the traditional philosophy of France. His lectures produced more ardent disciples than those of any other contemporary professor of philosophy. Judged on his teaching influence, Cousin occupies a foremost place in the rank of professors of philosophy, who like Jacobi, Schelling and Dugald Stewart have united the gifts of speculative, expository and imaginative power. The taste for philosophy--especially its history--was revived in France to an extent unknown since the 17th century. Among those influenced by Cousin were Théodore Simon Jouffroy, Jean Philibert Damiron, Garnier, Jules Barthelemy Saint-Hilaire, Felix.
Indifference curve - can be observed, rather than the older concept of utility which suffers from the disadvantage that it cannot be objectively measured. Table of contents showTocToggle("show","hide") 1 Indifference Curve Properties 1.1 Assumptions 2 Example Indifference Curves Indifference Curve Properties Indifference curves are typically assumed to have the following features: Indifference curves do not cross. This is a consequence of the assumption that consumers will always prefer to have more of either good than to have less. The curves are convex, which is a consequence of the assumption that as consumers have less and less of one good, they require more of the other good to compensate (corresponding to the law of diminishing marginal utility. Assumptions These properties follow mathematically from the first three of the following list of assumptions. These assumptions, which.
Intellectual history of time - It is for this reason that the very word history comes from the Greek word for investigation. There is no "history", just investigations (histories) of the past made by different people and left behind for others to read. For alas, no matter how advanced our technology, there is no way to be God and to be able to look back through time. We actually can only use technology to study the present, and make inferences about the past, and these inferences are necessarily faulty, for our science must by its very nature assume uniformity of processes, equality of time intervals, and other fictions that cannot be gotten around. For example, one can look at the Grand Canyon and "see" how it evolved over millions of years from the river flowing through.
Hussite Wars - new settlement of the Hussites, called by the biblical name of Tabor. Tabor soon became the centre of the advanced Hussites, who differed from the Utraquists by recognizing only two sacraments - Baptism and Communion - and by rejecting most of the ceremonial of the Roman Church. The ecclesiastical organization of Tabor had a somewhat puritanic character, and the government was established on a thoroughly democratic basis. Four captains of the people (hejtmane) were elected, one of whom was Zizka; and a very strictly military discipline was instituted. The First Anti-Hussite Crusade Sigismund, king of the Romans, had, by the death of his brother Wenceslaus without issue, acquired a claim on the Bohemian crown; though it was then, and remained till much later, doubtful whether Bohemia was an hereditary or an.
Galileo Galilei - 10 Other sources Experimental science In the pantheon of the scientific revolution Galileo occupies a high position because of his pioneering use of quantitative experiments with results analyzed mathematically. There was no tradition of such methods in European thought at that time; the great experimentalist who immediately preceded Galileo, William Gilbert, did not use a quantitative approach. (However, Galileo's father, Vincenzo Galilei, had performed experiments in which he discovered what may be the oldest known non-linear relation in physics, between the tension and the pitch of a stretched string.) In the 20th century the reality of Galileo's experiments was challenged by some authorities, in particular the distinguished French historian of science Alexandre Koyré. The experiments reported in Two New Sciences to determine the law of acceleration of falling bodies, for instance,.
Goodness and value theory - and providing subsidies. Table of contents showTocToggle("show","hide") 1 Moral vs. other goods 2 Tension between views of goodness 3 Monotheistic conceptions 4 Buddhist and Hindu conceptions 5 Animist 6 Radical values environmentalism 7 Kant: Hypothetical and Categorical Imperatives. 8 Goodness as a property 9 Shortcomings of Subjectivism 10 Intrinsic versus instrumental goodness 11 Pragmatism and Intrinsic goodness 12 Hedonism 13 Non-cognitivism 14 Circularity in the analysis of 'goodness' 15 The evasiveness of a definition of 'goodness'. 16 Collectivism versus Individualism: Contributory Goods 17 Transcendental value 18 Ecological transcendance 19 Empathy 20 Utilitarianism 21 Summary: Values pluralism and the grading of values. 22 Conclusion Moral vs. other goods Let's clarify the overlap of an ethicist's and economist's usage of the term "good." It is not a simple disambiguation: First, the words "morally.
Falsifiability - categorizes all instances of something, for example 'all swans are white'. Logicians call these statements universal. They are usually parsed in the form for all x, if x is a swan then x is white. Scientific laws are commonly supposed to be of this form. Perhaps the most difficult question in the methodology of science is: how does one move from observations to laws? How can one validly infer a universal statement from any number of existential statements? Inductivist methodology supposed that one can somehow move from a series of singular existential statements to a universal statement. That is, that one can move from ‘this is a white swan', “that is a white swan”, and so on, to a universal statement such as 'all swans are white'. This method is clearly.
Fluoride - fluorine compounds over an extended period of time, and can cause yellowing of teeth, or brittling of bones and teeth. The definition of 'excessive' in the context of fluorosis falls on the order of parts per million and is generally accepted to mean significantly higher than the 0.7 to 1.2 ppm amounts the American Dental Association recommends for fluoridated water. One brand of popular bottled water was tested by a critic of the practice of fluoridation to have 3.6 ppm of fluoride; this is a good example.[1] Fluoride was also tried as a therapy for osteoporosis (on an order of 75mg/day, a relatively high dose). Bone density did increase in the studies. However, some in the study had to reduce their fluoride dosage to avoid side effects. Additionally, overall bone strength.
Friedrich Schleiermacher - foundation of Humboldt University (1810), in which he took a prominent part, he obtained a theological chair, and soon became secretary to the Academy of Sciences. He was thus placed in a position suited to his powers and in social surroundings adapted to the needs of his rich nature. At the same time he showed himself a large-hearted and fearless patriot in a time of national calamity and humiliation, acquiring a name and place in his country's annals with Ernst Moritz Arndt, Fichte, Heinrich Friedrich Karl Stein and Gerhard Johann David von Scharnhorst. He took a prominent part in the reorganization of the Prussian church, and became the most powerful advocate of the union of the Lutheran and Reformed divisions of German Protestantism. The twenty-four years of his professional career in.
Acts of the Apostles - working of the energy in the disciples is conditioned by the continued life and volition of their Master at His Father's right hand in heaven. The Holy Spirit, "the Spirit of Jesus," is the living link between Master and disciples. Hence the pains taken to exhibit (1:2, 4f, 8, 2:1ff; cf. Luke 24:49) the fact of such spiritual solidarity, whereby their activity means His continued action in the world. And the scope of this action is nothing less than humanity (2:5ff.), especially within the Roman Empire. It was foreordained that Messiah's witnesses should be borne by Divine power through all obstacles and to ever-widening circles, until they reached and occupied Rome itself for the God of Israel--now manifest (as foretold by Israel's own prophets) as the one God of the one.
Argument from evolution - the existence of God. That God does not exist This section is about the argument from evolution concerning the non-existence of God. Theories of God will often cite God as the Creator of man, plants and animals. Darwin's theory of evolution, while not describing the process of original creation, proposes that all living organisms are descended from a common ancestor, and that species evolve through natural processes. In other words, Darwin's theory implies that humans were not created by a more complex being, but rather evolved through a relatively simple natural process. This theory of evolution does not suggest that God does not exist, but it does argue that the existence of God is unnecessary and irrelevant to any explanation of the evolution of species. This theory is highly regarded by.
Argument from ignorance - it is false because it has not been proved true A qualification should be made at this point. In some circumstances it can be safely assumed that if a certain event had occurred, evidence of it could be discovered by qualified investigators. In such circumstances it is perfectly reasonable to take the absence of proof of its occurrence as positive proof of its non-occurrence. (Copi 1953) Argument by lack of imagination is sometimes expressed in the form "Y is absurd (because I can not imagine it), therefore it must be untrue." This is sometimes confused with the logically valid method of argument, reductio ad absurdum. A logical argument using reductio ad absurdum would be framed as "X logically leads to a provably impossible (absurd) conclusion, therefore it must be false." In.
