Peer of France - Peer of France The status of Peer of France was held by the greatest and highest-ranking of the French nobility. (Note in particular that there were French nobles who were not Peers.) The origins and original significance of the concept are not clear, but by the thirteenth century the peers performed special functions at royal coronations, and this was to remain one of their most important distinctions until the end of the ancien regime. By 1216 there were 9 peers: the Archbishop of Reims, the bishops of Langres, Beauvais, Châlons, and Noyon, the dukes of Normandy, Burgundy, and Guyenne (Aquitaine), and the count of Champagne. While the archbishop of Reims had always crowned the king, it is less clear why the other prelates were chosen. The.
Peer - Peer 1. A peer is a person of the same age, status, or ability as another specified person. See also peer group. 2. A peer is also a member of the peerage, or nobility, in Britain or Ireland, comprising the ranks of duke, marquess, earl, viscount, or baron. A similar concept existed in the Western European monarchies; see Peer of France. 3. Peer is a municipality located in the Belgian province of Limburg. On January 1st, 2002 Peer had a total population of 15,521 (7,903 males and 7,618 females). The total area is 87.36 km² which gives a population density of 177.67 inhabitants per km²..
Jacques Necker - was sent to Paris in 1747 to become a clerk in the bank of a friend of his father. He soon afterwards established, with another Genevese, the famous bank of Thellusson & Necker. Thellusson superintended the bank in London (his grandson was made a peer as Lord Rendlesham), while Necker was managing partner in Paris. Both partners became very rich by loans to the treasury and speculations in grain. In 1763 Necker fell in love with Madame de Verménou, the widow of a French officer. But while on a visit to Geneva, Madame de Verménou met Suzanne Curchod, the daughter of a pastor near Lausanne, to whom Gibbon had been engaged, and brought her back as her companion to Paris in 1764. There Necker, transferring his love from the widow to.
January 2003 - New Democratic Party of Canada picks Toronto city councillor Jack Layton as its new leader, replacing Alexa McDonough, at its convention in Toronto. Layton wins on the first ballot, beating veteran MP Bill Blaikie. January 24, 2003 War on Terrorism: The United States Department of Homeland Security officially begins operation and former governor Tom Ridge takes command. Reorganization of other departments effected by its creation in the United States Government will continue for some time. This represents the largest reorganization of the United States Government since the creation of the United States Department of Defense during World War II. January 22, 2003 The RIAA, a music industry lobbying group, announces that Hilary Rosen will step down as head of the organization at the end of 2003. Rosen achieved notoriety on the.
Jean Pierre Flourens - sur les propriétés et les fonctions du système nerveux dons les animaux vertébrés, in which he, from experimental evidence, sought to assign their special functions to the cerebrum, corpora quadrigemina and cerebellum, was the subject of a highly commendatory report by Cuvier, adopted by the French Academy of Sciences in 1822. Flourens was chosen by Cuvier in 1828 to deliver a course of lectures on natural history at the College de France, and in the same year became, in succession to LAG Bosc, a member of the Institute, in the division "Economic rurale.” In 1830 he became Cuvier's substitute as lecturer on human anatomy at the Jardin du Roi, and in 1832 was elected to the post of titular professor, which he vacated for the professorship of comparative anatomy created for.
Jean-Baptiste Jourdan - November 23, 1833), was a marshal of France. He was born at Limoges, and apprenticed to a silk merchant of Lyons. In 1776 he enlisted in a French regiment to serve in the American War of Independence, and after being invalided in 1784 he married and set up in business at Limoges. At the outbreak of the French Revolution he volunteered, and as a subaltern took part in the first campaigns in the north of France. His rise was even more rapid than that of Hoche and Marceau. By 1793 he had become a general of division, and was selected by Carnot to succeed Houchard as commander-in-chief of the Army of the North; and on 15-16 October 1793 he won the brilliant and important victory of Wattignies. Soon afterwards he became.
Jean Lannes - Montebello (April 11, 1769-1809), marshal of France, was born at Lectoure (Gers). He was the son of a livery stables keeper, and was apprenticed to a dyer. He had had little education, but his great strength and proficiency in all manly sports caused him in 1792 to be elected sergeant-major of the battalion of volunteers of Gers, which he had joined on the breaking out of war between Spain and the French republic. He served through the campaigns in the Pyrenees in 1793 and 1794, and rose by distinguished conduct to the rank of chef de brigade. However, in 1795, on the reform of the army introduced by the Thermidorians, he was dismissed from his rank. He re-enlisted as a simple volunteer in the army of Italy, and in the famous.
John Horne Tooke - wished him to take orders in the Church of England]], and he was ordained deacon on September 23, 1759 and priest on November 23, 1760. For a few months he was usher at a boarding school at Blackheath, but on September 26 1760 he became perpetual curate of New Brentford, the incumbency of which his father had purchased for him, and he retained this poor living until 1773. During a part of this time (1763-1764) he was absent on a tour in France, acting as a bear-leader to a wealthy man. The excitement created by the actions of John Wilkes led Horne into politics, and in 1765 he brought out a scathing pamphlet on Bute and Mansfield, entitled "The Petition of an Englishman." In the autumn of 1765 he escorted another.
John Ligonier, 1st Earl Ligonier - He was born to a Huguenot family of Castres in the south of France, and who emigrated to England at the close of the 17th century. He entered the army as a volunteer under the Duke of Marlborough. From 1702 to 1710 he was engaged, with distinction, in nearly every important battle and siege of the War of the Spanish Succession. He was one of the first to mount the breach at the siege of Liège, commanded a company at the battles of Schellenberg and Blenheim, and was present at Menin (where he led the storming of the covered way), Ramillies, Oudenarde and Malplaquet (where he received twenty-three bullets through his clothing and remained unhurt). In 1712, he became governor of Fort St. Philip, Minorca, and in 1718 was adjutant-general of.
Victor Cousin - Cousin wanted to lecture on philosophy, and quickly obtained the position of master of conferences (maître de conférences) in the school. The second great philosophical impulse of his life was the teaching of Pierre Paul Royer-Collard. This teacher, he tells us, "by the severity of his logic, the gravity and weight of his words, turned me by degrees, and not without resistance, from the beaten path of Condillac into the way which has since become so easy, but which was then painful and unfrequented, that of the Scottish philosophy." In 1815-1816 Cousin attained the position of suppliant (assistant) to Royer-Collard in the history of modern philosophy chair of the faculty of letters. Another thinker who influenced him at this early period was Maine de Biran, whom Cousin regarded as the unequalled.
Henri, duc de Rohan - in Brittany. His father was René II, count of Rohan (1550-86), and head of one of the oldest and most distinguished families in France, which was connected with many of the reigning houses of Europe. He was educated by his mother, who was a woman of exceptional learning and force of character. Rohan was by birth the second son, but his elder brother René dying young he became the heir of the name. He appeared at court and in the army at the age of sixteen, and was a special favourite with Henry IV, after whom, failing the house of Conde, he might be said to be the natural chief of the French Protestants. Having served till the peace of Vervins, he travelled for a considerable time over Europe, including England.
Gazan de la Peyriere - under Napoleon. Honoré Theodore Maxime Gazan de la Peyriére was born in a small town of Grasse, France on October 29 1765. His lawyer father sent him to College of Soreze where he received military training and eventually joined the French Royal Life Guards in 1786. Afterwards he also joined the Freemasons. Upon the eruption of the French Revolution, Gazan returned to Grasse and joined the national guard. In 1790 he had become a captain and in 1971 a lieutenant colonel of the local volunteer battalion of Var. In 1972 he was sent to the 27th regiment as a captain and took the regiment to the [[Rhine]9 upon the declaration of war with Austria. Regiment first became a garrison troops in [[Strasbourg]9 but joined the battle in December near Weissenbourgh. In.
George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen - the House of Lords. Following the death of his wife in 1812 he joined the Foreign Service. He was appointed ambassador extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary at Vienna, where he signed the Treaty of Toplitz between Great Britain and Austria in October 1813. He was one of the British representatives at the Congress of Chatillon in February 1814, and at the negotiations which led to the Treaty of Paris in the following May. Returning home he was created a peer of the United Kingdom as Viscount Gordon of Aberdeen (1814), and made a member of the privy council. In July 1815 he married Harriet, daughter of John Douglas, and widow of James, Viscount Hamilton. During the ensuing thirteen years Aberdeen took a less prominent part in public affairs. He served as Chancellor.
Georges Cuvier - was elected a member. In 1796 he began to lecture at the École Centrale du Pantheon, and at the opening of the National Institute in April, he read his first palaeontological paper, which was subsequently published in 1800 under the title Mémoires sur les espèces d’éléphants vivants et fossiles. In 1798 was published his first separate work, the Tableau élémentaire de l’Histoire naturelle des animaux, which was an abridgment of his course of lectures at the École du Pantheon, and may be regarded as the foundation and first and general statement of his natural classification of the animal kingdom. In 1799 he succeeded LJM Daubenton as professor of natural history in the College de France, and in the following year he published the Lecons d’anatomie comparéc, a classical work, in the.
Guild - are defining characteristics of mercantilism in economics, which dominated most European thinking about political economy until the rise of classical economics. States applied this thinking, for instance, to restrict the flow of gold and silver to military opponents, as gold was useful to buy weapons and hire mercenaries. Organization The guild was made up by experienced and confirmed experts in their field of handicraft. They were called master craftsmen. Before a new employee could rise to the level of mastery, they had to go through a schooling period during which they were first called apprenticess. After this period thay could rise to the level of journeymen. An apprentice would typically not learn more than the most basic techniques until they were trusted by their peers to keep the guild's or company's.
Guillaume Mathieu, comte Dumas - had a share in all the principal engagements that occurred during a period of nearly two years. On the conclusion of peace in 1783 he returned to France as a major. During 1784 to 1786 Dumas explored the archipelago and the coasts of Turkey. He was present at the siege of Amsterdam in 1787, where he co-operated with the Dutch against the Prussians. After the outbreak of the French Revolution (1789) he acted with Lafayette and the constitutional liberal party. The National Constituent Assembly entrusted him with the command of the escort which conducted King Louis XVI to Paris after the Flight to Varennes (June 1791). In 1791 as a maréchal de camp he was appointed to a command at Metz, where he rendered important service in improving the discipline of.
Francois Barbé-Marbois - San Domingo. At the close of 1789 he returned to France, and then placed his services at the disposal of the revolutionary government. In 1791 he was sent to Regensburg to help de Noailles, the French ambassador. In 1795 he was elected to the Council of the Ancients, where the general moderation of his attitude, especially in his opposition to the exclusion of nobles from public life, brought him under suspicion of being a royalist, though he pronounced a eulogy on Bonaparte for his success in Italy. At the coup d’etat of the 18th Fructidor (September 4) 1797, he was arrested and transported to French Guiana. Transferred to Oléron In 1799, he owed his liberty to Napoleon, after the 18th Brumaire. In 1801 he became councillor of state and director of.
François Christophe Kellermann - 1735 - 23 September 1820), duke of Valmy and marshal of France, came of a Saxon family, long settled in Strassburg and ennobled, and was born there in 1735. He entered the French army as a volunteer, and served in the Seven Years' War and in Louis XV's Polish expedition of 1771, on returning from which he was made a lieutenant-colonel. He became brigadier in 1784, and in the following year marechal-de-camp. In 1789 Kellermann enthusiastically embraced the cause of the Revolution, and in 1791 became general of the army in Alsace. In April 1792 he was made a lieutenant-general, and in August of the same year there came to him the opportunity of his lifetime. He rose to the occasion, and his victory of Valmy over the Prussians, in Goethe's.
François Alexandre Frédéric, duc de la Rochefoucauld-Liancourt - where he was the guest of Arthur Young, and thence passed to America. After the assassination of his cousin, Louis-Alexandre, duc de La Rochefoucauld d'Enville, at Gisors on September 14, 1792 he assumed the title of duc de La Rochefoucauld. He returned to Paris in 1799, but received small favour from Napoleon. At the Restoration he entered the House of Peers, but Louis XVIII refused to reinstate him as master of the wardrobe, although his father had paid 400,000 francs for the honour. Successive governments, revolutionary and otherwise, recognized the value of his institutions at Liancourt, and he was for twenty-three years government inspector of his school of arts and crafts, which had been removed to Chalons. He was one of the first promoters of vaccination in France; he established a.
François Henri de Montmorency-Bouteville, duc de Luxembourg - de Luxembourg (January 8, 1628 - January 4, 1695), marshal of France, the comrade and successor of the great Condé, was born at Paris, France. His father, the comte de Montmorency-Bouteville, had been executed six months before his birth for killing the marquis de Beuvron in a duel, but his aunt, Charlotte de Montmorency, princess of Condé, took charge of him and educated him with her son, the duc d'Enghien. The young Montmorency (or Bouteville as he was then called) attached himself to his cousin, and shared his successes and reverses throughout the troubles of the Fronde. He returned to France in 1659 and was pardoned, and Condé, then much attached to the duchesse de Châtillon, Montmorency's sister, contrived the marriage of his adherent and cousin to the greatest heiress in.
