Universal grammar - Universal grammar Universal grammar is a theory of linguistics postulating that all languages have underlying principles of grammar. These underlying principles are said to be innate to all human beings. This theory does not attempt to claim that all human languages have the same grammar, or that all humans are "programmed" with a structure that underlies all surface expressions of human language. Rather, universal grammar proposes that there exists an underlying set of rules that helps children to acquire their particular language(s). Students of universal grammar study a variety of languages' grammars with the purpose of abstracting generalizations, often in the form of "If X holds true, then Y occurs." These have been extended to a range of traits, from the phonemes found in languages, to.
Universal translator - Universal translator The universal translator is a fictional device common to many science fiction works; it is both convenient and almost always infallible. It offers an instant translation of any language, even if that language has never been recorded, as in the case of Star Trek. Usually it ignores any grammar rules between languages, giving it as perfect English. Most of the time, it's depicted as a machine that works with a communications monitor. An exception is the Babel fish from The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy, a small organism that fits in the user's ear. The universal translator is convenient when science is not the main priority, or when the author prefers to ignore linguistic issues. Some writers seek greater plausibility by instead having computer.
Dr Challoner's Grammar School - Dr Challoner's Grammar School Dr Challoner's Grammar School is a Voluntary Controlled Grammar School of 1220 boys located in Amersham, Buckinghamshire, England. It was founded in 1624 in accordance with the last will and testament of Dr Robert Chaloner (spelt with one ‘l’). Robert Chaloner was Rector of Amersham from 1576 to 1584, when he took up office as a Canon of Windsor, a post he held until his death in 1621. In his will, Robert Chaloner left money to establish ‘a free gramar scoole in Amersam’, as well as £40 a year for a schoolmaster. The school was situated in Old Amersham for almost three centuries before moving, with the support of Buckinghamshire County Council, to its present buildings in Amersham-on-the Hill in 1905. At this time,.
Transformational grammar - Transformational grammar [This article concentrates heavily on Chomsky and Chomsky-related aspects of this topic. This is justifiable to some degree considering his importance in the field, but it would be nice to have a more balanced view.] Transformational grammar is a broad term describing grammars (almost exclusively those of natural languages) which have been developed in a Chomskyan tradition. The term is usually synonymous with the slightly more specific transformational-generative grammar. Deep Structure and Surface Structure In the 1950s and 1960s, Chomsky developed the idea that each sentence in a language has two levels of representation - a Deep Structure and a Surface Structure. The deep structure was a direct representation of the semantics of a sentence, and was mapped onto the surface structure (which followed the.
James Martineau - Norwich. His son and grandson--respectively the great-grandfather and grandfather of James Martineau--were surgeons in the same city, while his father was a manufacturer and merchant. James was educated at Norwich Grammar School under Edward Valpy, as good a scholar as his better-known brother Richard, but proved too sensitive for state school. He was sent to Bristol to the private academy of Dr Lant Carpenter, under whom he studied for two years. On leaving he was apprenticed to a civil engineer at Derby, where he acquired "a store of exclusively scientific conceptions," but also began to look to religion for mental stimulation. His "conversion" followed, and in 1822 he entered Manchester College, then at York. Here he "woke up to the interest of moral and metaphysical speculations." Of his teachers, one, the.
John Henley - son of a vicar, John Henley was born on August 3, 1692 at Melton-Mowbray. After attending the grammar schools of Melton and Oakham, Rutlandshire, he entered St John’s College, Cambridge, "Ye College where I had ye Stupidity to be educated," as he himself said. After having taken a B.A. degree, he became assistant and, afterwards, director in the grammar school of Melton-Mowbray. He was also assistant curate there. In 1714, he wrote a poem styled Esther, Queen of Persia, which was received with applause, and in 1719-1721, he published The Compleat Linguist; or, An Universal Grammar of all the Considerable Tongues in Being. In November 1721, after having taken his degree as Master of Arts, he removed to London, where he obtained the appointment of assistant preacher and wrote several books..
Victor Cousin - he was born in Paris, in the Quartier Saint-Antoine. At the age of ten he was sent to the local grammar school, the Lycée Charlemagne, where he studied until he was eighteen. The lycée had a connection with the university, and when Cousin left the secondary school he was "crowned" in the ancient hall of the Sorbonne for the Latin oration delivered by him there, in the general concourse of his school competitors. The classical training of the lycée strongly disposed him to literature. He was already known among his compeers for his knowledge of Greek. From the lycée he passed to the Normal School of Paris, where Pierre Laromiguière was then lecturing on philosophy. In the second preface to the Fragmens philosophiques, in which he candidly states the varied philosophical.
Isaac Newton (in-depth biography) - achievements 1.1 Birth and education 1.2 Academic Career 1.3 The Composition of White Light 1.4 Conflict over oratorship elections 1.5 Newton's poverty 1.6 Universal Law of Gravitation 2 Authoring Principia 2.7 Newton's major work—Principia Mathematica 2.8 Conflict between the University and James II 2.9 Illness in 1693 2.10 Initial Election to Parliament 3 Later life -- the Mint and the Royal Society 3.11 Appointment to the Mint 3.12 Fluxions 3.13 Bernoulli's Mathematical Challenge 3.14 End of the Professorship and Presidency of the Society 3.15 Second Edition of the Principia 3.16 The Longitude Problem Early life and achievements Birth and education Sir Isaac Newton (December 25, 1642 - March 20, 1727), the English mathematician and scientist, was born at Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, a hamlet in the parish of Colsterworth, Lincolnshire, about 6 miles from.
Heinrich Ewald - by the Prussian authorities to be unnecessary, had Ewald been less hostile in his language. The violent tone of some of his printed manifestoes about this time, especially of his Lob des Königs u. des Volkes, led to his being deprived of the venia legendi (1868) and also to a criminal process, which, however, resulted in his acquittal (May 1869). Then, and on two subsequent occasions, he was returned by the city of Hanover as a member of the North German and German parliaments. In June 1874 he was found guilty of a libel on Prince Bismarck, whom he had compared to Frederick the Great in "his unrighteous war with Austria and his ruination of religion and morality," to Napoleon III in his way of "picking out the best time possible.
Unua Libro - Polish, French, German and English. This booklet included the Lord's Prayer, some Bible verses, a letter, poetry, the sixteen rules of grammar and 900 roots of vocabulary. Zamenhof declared, "an international language, like a national one, is common property." Zamenhof signed the work as "Doktoro Esperanto" and the title Esperanto stuck as the name of the language which, in Esperanto, means "one who hopes." In 1905, Zamenhof re-published the sixteen rules of grammar, in combination with a "universal dictionary" and a collection of exercises, in a work entitled Fundamento de Esperanto (Basis of Esperanto). At the first Esperanto World Congress at Boulogne in the same year, a declaration was issued, including the following (shown here in intentionally literal translation): "The only, once-and-for-all binding on all Esperantists, basis of the language Esperanto.
Goddess - on a monotheist God (Sered Goddess, Mother, Sacred Sister 1996) and often lack deities as Westernerss understand them. In Hinduism, the goddess Shakti represents the principle of energy through which divinity functions. The transcendent god, Brahman, transcends categories but its representation through the mind occurs through the categories of male God and female energy, working as a pair. Brahma pairs with Sarasvati, Vishnu with Lakshmi, and Shiva with Uma, Parvati, or Durga. Kali is just a form of Parvati. Monotheist cultures, which recognise only one central deity, find it much more difficult to recognise Goddess; recent history has overwhelmingly presented the single Deity as male, constantly using the masculine pronoun "he",and images like "Father", "Son", and "Lord". This recent trend has almost entirely excluded the feminine pronoun "she" as sacred, and.
Government and Binding - mainly by Noam Chomsky (1981, 1982, 1986). This theory continues on from his earlier transformational grammar (1957, 1965) and was later revised by Chomsky's new theory: The Minimalist Program (1993). GB tries to explain a universal grammar theory (UG), which describes all languages. It is somewhat of a misnomer as Government and Binding theories only form a small part of the whole - it is also known, more appropriately, as Principles and Parameters. Books Noam Chomsky, "Lectures on Government and Binding" Liliane Haegeman, "Introduction to Government and Binding", 2nd Ed. 1994 Blackwell..
Uniqueness quantification - to uniqueness quantification. For example: There is exactly one natural number x such that x - 2 = 4. Symbolically, this can be written: ∃!x in N, x - 2 = 4 The symbol "∃!" is called the uniqueness quantifier, or unique existential quantifier. It is usually read "there exists one and only one", or "there exists an unique" (Several variations on the grammar for this symbol exist, as well as for how it's read.) Uniqueness quantification is usually thought of as a combination of universal quantification ("for all", "∀"), existential quantification ("for some", "∃"), and equality ("equals", "="). Thus if P(x) is the predicate being quantified over (in our example above, P(x) is "x - 2 = 4"), then ∃!x, P(x) means: (∃a, P(a)) ∧ (∀b, P(b)) → (a =.
French language - and 128 million including second language speakers, in 1999. It is an official or administrative language in various communities and organizations (such as the European Union, IOC, United Nations and Universal Postal Union). French Spoken in: France and 53 other countries. Region: Total speakers: 77 Million Ranking: 11 Genetic classification: Indo-European Italic Romance Italo-Western Western Gallo-Iberian Gallo-Romance Gallo-Rhaetian Oïl French Official status Official language of: France and 24 other countries Regulated by: Académie française Language codes ISO 639-1: fr ISO 639-2(B): fre ISO 639-2(T): fra SIL: FRN Table of contents showTocToggle("show","hide") 1 History 2 Geographic distribution 2.1 Legal status in France 2.2 Legal status in Canada 2.3 Dialects of French 2.4 Languages derived from French 3 Sounds 3.5 Vowels 3.6 Consonants 4 Grammar 4.7 The verb 4.8 Compound tense auxiliary verbs.
Frederick Augustus Porter Barnard - was rapid; new departments were established; the elective system was greatly extended; more adequate provision was made for graduate study and original research, and the enrolment was increased from about 150 to more than 1000 students. Barnard strove to have educational privileges extended by the university to women as well as to men, and Barnard college, for women, established immediately after his death, was named in his honour. He died in New York City on the 27th of April 1889. Barnard was a versatile man, of catholic training, a classical and English scholar, a mathematician, a physicist, and a chemist, a good public speaker, and a vigorous but somewhat prolix writer on various subjects, his annual reports to the Board of Trustees of Columbia being particularly valuable as discussions of educational.
English writing style - in which features of the language are used to convey meaning, typically but not always within the constraints of more widely accepted conventions of grammar and spelling. An individual's writing style may be a very personal thing. Organizations that employ writers or commission written work from individuals may require that writers conform to a standardized style defined by the organization. This allows a consistent readability of composite works produced by many authors, and promotes usability of, for example, references to other cited works. In many kinds of professional writing aiming for effective transfer of information, adherence to a standardised style of writing helps readers make sense of what the writer is presenting. Many standardised styles are documented in style guides. Some styles are more widely used, others restricted to a particular.
Eric Lenneberg - arguments for the innate "language organ". He presents four arguments for biological innateness of psychological capacities, as constructed in parallel to arguments in biology for the innateness of physical traits: Universal appearance of a trait at a single time across a species. "Species typical" traits. Universal appearance across time for a group. Not just an artifact of cultural history. Again, "species typical" diagnostic feature. No learning of the trait is possible. Individual development of a trait rigidly follows a given schedule regardless of the particular experience of the organism. He died at a young age. These early papers remain a significant legacy. Bibliography The Capacity of Language Acquisition in Fodor and Katz, 1964. Fodor, Jerry and Jerrold Katz, eds. 1964. The Structure of Language. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. The Fodor.
Esperanto - who has attended Esperanto congresses, who has commented regarding the logical structure of Esperanto: "If the world could be structured that efficiently", and whose wife Ruth, who has herself written four plays in Esperanto, has commented "It's the only hope for the world or it will be destroyed" ([1]). Culbert concluded that 1.6 million people speak Esperanto to Foreign Service Level 3 ability. This number is limited to those "professionally proficient" (possessing the ability to actually communicate beyond greetings and simple phrases) in Esperanto. This survey did not seek out speakers of Esperanto specifically, but formed a part of a world-wide survey of many languages. This number also appears in the Almanac World Book of Facts, and in Ethnologue. Assuming nonetheless that this figure is accurate, this means that about 0.03%.
Esperanto history - base, Esperanto evolved naturally into the language spoken today. In the early 1920s, there was a proposal for the League of Nations to accept Esperanto as their working language. Ten delegates accepted the proposal with only one voice against, the french delegate, Gabriel Hanotaux. Hanotaux did not like how the French language was losing its position as the international language and saw Esperanto as a threat. Later, Adolf Hitler and Joseph Stalin murdered many Esperanto speakers because of their anti-nationalistic tendencies. Hitler wrote in Mein Kampf that it was created as a universal language to unite the Jewish diaspora. Stalin declared it as "the language of spies." Table of contents showTocToggle("show","hide") 1 Timeline of Esperanto, with particular focus on Esperanto Youth 2 Outside events influencing Esperanto history 3 Works Cited Timeline.
Deep structure - These two "surface structures" were said to be derived from the same deep structure ("John loves Mary") by "transformations", which is why the theory came to be called "transformational grammar". Unfortunately, the "surface" appeal of the Deep Structure concept soon led people from unrelated fields (architecture, music, politics) to misuse and abuse the term to express various things in their own work, which rarely if ever had the rigor of Chomsky's own linguistic scholarship. Perhaps it was this situation that led Chomsky and his students to abandon the term entirely, replacing it with the abbreviation "DS". In 1980 and 1981, Chomsky's theory took a new turn, becoming known as Government and Binding Theory (the name is somewhat misleading, since Government and Binding are not the only significant components of the theory)..
