Manhattan Project - civilian instead of military targets has often been criticized. However, the U.S. already had a policy of massive incendiary attacks against civilian targets in Japan. These dropped 20% explosives, to break up wooden structures and provide fuel, and then dropped 80% (by weight) small incendiary bombs to set the cities on fire. The resulting raids completely destroyed many Japanese cities, including Tokyo, even before atomic weapons were deployed. The allies performed such attacks because Japanese industry was extremely dispersed among civilian targets, with many tiny family-owned factories operating in the midst of civilian housing. see also: nuclear weapon, nuclear weapon design, isotope separation, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Hanford Site, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Trinity site History In the years between World War I and World War II,.
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory - Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory The Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) is a United States Department of Energy national laboratory, managed by the University of California, in Livermore, California. The Laboratory describes its purpose: "to promote innovation in the design of our nation's nuclear stockpile through creative science and engineering." The laboratories field of research has expanded to include general energy issues, as well as biomedicine and environmental science. The institute was founded in September 1952 as part of the University of California Radiation Laboratory, in order to design nuclear weapons; the laboratory was first proposed (unofficially in 1949, officially on April 4, 1951) by Edward Teller, of the Los Alamos Nuclear Weapons Laboratory, and further promoted by Ernest Lawrence, of the Manhattan Project. The laboratory project.
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory - Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory LBNL overlooking the Berkeley central campus and San Francisco Bay (Image of old Berkeley Radiation Laboratory) The Ernest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL), formerly the Berkeley Radiation Laboratory and usually shortened to Berkeley Lab is a U.S. Department of Energy national laboratory in Berkeley, California conducting unclassified scientific research. It is managed and owned by the University of California. The site consists of 76 buildings located on 183 acres on the hills of the University of California, Berkeley campus. Altogether, it has some 4,000 employees, of which about 800 are students. Each year, the Lab also hosts more than 2,000 participating guests. The Laboratory includes 15 divisions that are organized within the areas of Computing Sciences, Energy Sciences, Biosciences, General Sciences,.
Los Alamos National Laboratory - Los Alamos National Laboratory Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) is a United States Department of Energy (DOE) laboratory, managed by the University of California located in Los Alamos, New Mexico. The Laboratory is one of the largest multidisciplinary institutions in the world. It is the largest institution and the largest employer in northern New Mexico with approximately 6,800 University of California employees plus approximately 2,800 contractor personnel. The annual budget is approximately $1.2 billion. Approximately one-third of the Laboratory's technical staff members are physicists, one-fourth are engineers, one-sixth are chemists and materials scientists, and the remainder work in mathematics and computational science, biological science, geoscience, and other disciplines. Professional scientists and students also come to Los Alamos as visitors to participate in scientific projects. The staff collaborates with universities.
Ernest Lawrence - Ernest Lawrence Ernest Orlando Lawrence (August 8, 1901 - August 27, 1958) was was an American physicist and Nobel laureate best known for his invention of the cyclotron. Born in Canton, South Dakota, Lawrence attended Olaf's College in Minnesota, but transferred to the University of South Dakota after his first year. He earned his bachelor's degree 1922. He received his Ph.D. in physics at Yale University in 1925. He remained at Yale as a researcher on the photoelectric effect, becoming an assistant professor in 1927. In 1928 he was appointed Associate Professor of Physics at the University of California, Berkeley, and two years later he became Professor, being the youngest at Berkeley. He was called the "Atom Smasher," the man who "held the key" to atomic energy..
List of Artificial Radiation Belts - List of Artificial Radiation Belts Artificial radiation belts have been artificially created by the explosion of high-altitude nuclear weapons. See also: Nicholas Christofolis, Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, Operation Argus, Van Allen radiation belt List of Artificial Radiation Belts Explosion Location Date Yield Altitude (kilometerkm) Nation Responsible Argus I South Atlantic 8-27-58 1 kt ~200 US Argus II South Atlantic 8-30-58 1 kt ~250 US Argus III South Atlantic 9-6-58 1 kt ~500 US Argus III South Atlantic 9-6-58 1 kt ~500 US Starfish Johnson Island (Pacific) 7-9-62 1 Mt ~400 US ? Siberia 10-22-62 ? 100s of kilotons ? USSR ? Siberia 10-28-62 submegaton ? USSR ? Siberia 11-1-62 megaton ? USSR.
Charles G. Abbot - Institution. He was born in Wilton, New Hampshire. Abbot graduated from MIT in 1894, and being skilled at laboratory work, he came to the attention of Samuel Pierpont Langley, who was looking for an assistant at the Smithsonian's Astrophysical Observatory. Under Langley, Abbot flourished as a creative designer and builder of delicate devices for measuring solar radiation. As Langley focused more and more on his aeronautical experiments, Abbot became responsible for maintaining the observatory's solar program, including an expedition to observe the 1900 solar eclipse in Wadesboro, North Carolina where Abbot applied a vastly improved bolometer to take readings of the Sun's inner corona. He was also a leading member of the American eclipse expedition to Sumatra in 1901. Abbot proved to be a reliable observer and impressed many astronomers who.
Ununquadium - the periodic table that has the temporary symbol Uuq and has the atomic number 114. History In January 1999, Ununquadium was reported informally by scientists at Dubna (Joint Institute for Nuclear Research) in Russia. They apparently used isotopes that came from the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, USA. Their discovery of the element still waits confirmation. Precautions Ununquadium does not occur naturally, but if enough was created and put in one place it would create a radiation hazard. External Link WebElements.com - Uuq http://www.apsidium.com/elements/114.htm.
Aerobot - than a light gas balloon, do not necessarily require a tank of light gas for inflation, and are relatively forgiving of small leaks. They do have the disadvantage that they are only aloft during daylight hours. The other is a "reversible fluid" balloon. This type of balloon consists of an envelope connected to a reservoir, with the reservoir containing a fluid that is easily vaporized. The balloon can be made to rise by vaporizing the fluid into gas, and can be made to sink by condensing the gas back into fluid. There are a number of different ways of implementing this scheme, but the physical principle is the same in all cases. A balloon designed for planetary exploration will carry a small gondola containing an instrument payload. The gondola will also.
Software engineering - the start of the field. The software crisis Software engineering arose out of the so called software crisis of the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s, when many software projects had bad endings. Many software projects ran over budget and schedule. Some projects caused property damage. A few projects caused loss of life. As software becomes more pervasive, we all recognize the need for better software. The software crisis was originally defined in terms of productivity, but evolved to emphasize quality. Cost and Budget Overruns: The OS 360 operating system was a classic example. It is still used on the IBM 360 Series and its descendants. This decade-long project eventually produced a working system amongst the most complex software systems ever designed. OS 360 was one of the first very large (1000 programmer).
Medicine - contents showTocToggle("show","hide") 1 History of medicine 2 Medical sciences and medical professions 2.1 Basic, supplementary and related sciences 2.2 Diagnostic and imaging specialties 2.3 Disciplines of clinical medicine 3 Teaching of medicine 4 Legal restrictions 5 Institutions in medicine 6 Related topics 7 See also 8 Entries not yet sorted History of medicine History of medicine -- Timeline of medicine and medical technology Museums & Collections of Health & Medicine Medical sciences and medical professions Medicine has both its foundational sciences, and specialized branches dealing with particular organs or diseases. The foundational sciences of medicine frequently overlap with other areas of science (such as veterinary science, biology or chemistry). The primary medical professions are those of physicians and surgeons. Both professions have many specializations and subspecializations (see below). Dentistry and clinical.
IBM 7030 - the world from 1961 until 1964! Table of contents showTocToggle("show","hide") 1 Development History 2 Customer Deliveries 3 External Links Development History In May, 1955 IBM lost a bid on a high-performance decimal computer system for the University of California Radiation Laboratory in Livermore, California. Univac, the dominant computer manufacturer at the time, had won the contract for LARC, the Livermore Automatic Research Computer. In September, 1955 fearing that Los Alamos might also order a LARC, IBM submitted a preliminary proposal for a high-performance binary computer, which they received with interest. In January, 1956, Project Stretch was formally initiated. In November, 1956 IBM won the contract for a binary computer with the aggressive performance goal of a "speed at least 100 times the IBM 704" to the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory. Delivery.
Edward Teller - met George Gamow. Prior to 1939, and the announcement to the scientific community of the discovery of fission, Teller was engaged as a theoretical physicist working in the fields of quantum physics, molecular physics, and nuclear physics. In 1941, his interest turned to the use of nuclear energy, both fission and fusion. In 1942, having worked with the Briggs committee, Teller joined the Manhattan Project at Columbia University and the University of Chicago with Enrico Fermi and Leo Szilard. He was part of the Theoretical Physics division at Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, serving as an assistant director, during World War II and pushed hard for the additional development of nuclear weapons into a fusion based super bomb (hydrogen bomb) rather than using just the fission only atomic bomb. Because of his.
Edwin McMillan - took his Doctor of Philosophy from Princeton University in 1932. He joined the staff of the University of California, Berkeley upon receiving his doctorate, moving to the Berkeley Radiation Laboratory when it was founded at Berkeley in 1934. In 1940 he created neptunium ising the cyclotron at Berkeley. In World War II, he was involved in research on radar, sonar, and nuclear weapons. In 1945 he developed ideas for the improvement of the cyclotron, leading to the development of the synchrotron. With Glenn T. Seaborg, he shared the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1951 for the creation of the first transuranium elements. In 1946, he became a full professor at Berkeley, and in 1954 he was appointed associate director of the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, being promoted to director in 1958, where.
Albert Ghiorso - engineer and was introduced Glenn T. Seaborg through a mutual friendship between their wives who also worked as secretaries at the Berkeley Radiation Laboratory. (Helen Griggs-Seaborg was Ernest Orlando Lawrence's secretary when she met Glenn Seaborg.) This collaboration was most fruitful in the early days of the cyclotron's products being hard to identify and detect, and resulted in many elements being discovered at UC Berkeley. Glenn Seaborg became Chancellor at Berkeley that led him away from but not removed him from the lab (so is considered a co-discoverer along with Darleane Hoffmann and Greg Choppin, etc.) Before the mishap about the discovery of element #118 in 2000, the element was proposed to be named Ghirosium by his colleagues. He was born in Vallejo, California and grew up in Alameda, California and.
Seaborgium - simultaneously by two different laboratories. In June 1974, a Soviet team led by G. N. Flerov at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research at Dubna reported producing an isotope with mass number 259 and a half-life of 7ms, and in September 1974, an Americann research team led by Albert Ghiorso at the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory at the University of California, Berkeley reported creating an isotope with mass number 263 and a half-life of 0.9s. Because their work was independently confirmed first, the Americans suggested the name seaborgium to honor the American chemist Glenn T. Seaborg. This name was extremely controversial because Seaborg was still alive. An international committee decided in 1992 that the Berkeley and Dubna laboratories should share credit for the discovery. An element naming controversy erupted and as a.
Particle accelerator - microwave frequencies, and so microwave cavities are used in higher energy machines instead of simple plates. High energy linear accelerators are often called linacs. Linear accelerators are very widely used - every cathode ray tube contains one, and they are also used to provide an initial low energy kick to particles before they are injected into circular accelerators. The largest is the Stanford Linear Accelerator, which is 2 miles long. Circular accelerators The accelerated particles move in a circle until they reach sufficient energy. The particle track is bent into a circle using dipole magnets. The advantage of circular accelerators over linacs is that components can be reused to accelerate the particles further, as the particle passes a given point many times. However they suffer a disadvantage in that the particles.
Phelsuma - novorum ab ill. Dr. Christ Rutenberg in insula Madagascar collectorum. Zool. Anz. Leipzig 4: 46-48. Boettger, O. (1881 b). Reliquiae Rutenbergiana II: Reptilien und Amphibien. Abl. bremer naturwiss. Ver. Bremen 7: 177-190. Boettger, O. (1881 c) Die Reptilien und Amphibien von Madagaskar. Dritten Nachtrag Abh. senck. naturfors. Gesellschaft 12: 435-558. Boettger, O. (1893). Katalog der Reptilien Sammlung im Museum der Senckenbergischen naturforschenden gesellschaft in Frankfurt am Main. I. Teil Frankfurt a/M.Gesellschaft 12: 435-558. Boettger, O. (1894). Diagnose eines Geckos und Chameleons aus Südmadagascar. Zool. Anzeiger (Leipzig) 17: 137-140. Boettger, O. (1913). Reptilien und Amphibien von Madagaskar, den Inseln und dem Festland Ostafrikas (Sammlung Voeltzkow 1889-1895 und 1903-1905) in: Voeltzkow, A. 1908-1917, Reise in Ostafrika. Stuttgart 3: 269-375. Böhme, W. & Meier, H. (1981) Eine neue form der madagascariensis-Gruppe der Gattung Phelsuma.
Project Pluto - 1957, the U.S. Air Force and the Atomic Energy Commission selected the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory's (LLNL) predecessor, the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, to study the feasibility of applying heat from nuclear reactors to ramjet engines. This research became known as "Project Pluto" and was moved from Livermore, California to new facilities constructed for $1.2 million on eight square miles of Jackass Flats at the Nevada Test Site (NTS), known as Site 401. The complex consisted of six miles of roads, critical assembly building, control building, assembly and shop buildings, and utilities. Also required for the construction was 25 miles of oil well casing which was necessary to store the million pounds of pressurized air used to simulate ramjet flight conditions for Pluto. The work was directed by Dr. Ted Merkle, leader.
Operation Argus - three modified X-17a missiles armed with 1.7 kt W-25 nuclear warheads into the upper atmosphere, in order to conduct tests regarding the magnetosphere and the Van Allen radiation belts. The tests were proposed by Nicholas Christofilos of the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory (LRL) as a means to determine the possibility of creating artificial radiation belts for military purposes. The Argus explosions created artificial electron belts resulting from the β-decay of fission fragments. These lasted for several weeks. Such radiation belts affect radio and radar transmissions, damage or destroy arming and fusing mechanisms of intercontinental ballistic missile warheads, and endanger crews of orbiting space vehicles. The tests were first reported by the New York Times on March 19, 1959. More than 4,500 people participated in the operation. Followed the Hardtack I series, but.
